tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-4487424205314295972024-03-14T00:55:58.402-07:00Pantang Menyerah Sebelum Ku Coba Apa Yang Aku BisaAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.comBlogger8125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-18544762305000125592013-02-14T18:46:00.000-08:002013-02-21T18:47:59.001-08:00Ms. Access <div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br /><br />Ms. Access <br /><br />1. Sebuah data yang ditampilkan dalam bentuk laporan disebut …<br /><br />a. Forms <br /><br />b. Query <br /><br />c. Table <br /><br />d. Records <br /><br />e. Report <br /><br />2. Fasilitas yang digunakan untuk mempermudah proses pemasukan data, pencarian data, pengeditan data dan lainnya disebut …<br /><br />a. Forms <br /><br />b. Query <br /><br />c. Table <br /><br />d. Records <br /><br />e. Report <br /><br />3. Cara membuat baris data baru yang masih kosong dari Ms. Access adalah memilih …<br /><br />a. Blank data base <br /><br />b. Blank data access page <br /><br />c. Project using new data <br /><br />d. Project using exiting data <br /><br />e. From axiting file <br /><br />4. Berikut ini ciri yang berada dalam field primay cary …<br /><br />a. Harus bertipe tab <br /><br />b. Boleh ada data yang sama <br /><br />c. Boleh diisi belakangan <br /><br />d. Tidak boleh ada data yang sama <br /><br />e. Salah semua <br /><br />5. Untuk mengunci data seperti NIS dengan menggunakan …<br /><br />a. Kunci <br /><br />b. Primay key <br /><br />c. Query <br /><br />d. Record <br /><br />e. Report <br /><br />6. Bagian-bagian dari database adalah sebagai berikut, kecuali …<br /><br />a. Form <br /><br />b. Format <br /><br />c. Tabel <br /><br />d. Query <br /><br />e. Report <br /><br />7. Yang digunakan untuk menerangkan field name adalah …<br /><br />a. Description <br /><br />b. Field size <br /><br />c. Input mask <br /><br />d. Format <br /><br />e. Captain <br /><br />8. Untuk menambah record baru dipilih …<br /><br />a. Insert record <br /><br />b. Insert row <br /><br />c. Insert data <br /><br />d. Update record <br /><br />e. Update data <br /><br />9. Extenil file untuk program database Ms. Access adalah ...<br /><br />a. MDB <br /><br />b. TXT <br /><br />c. PPT<br /><br />d. MYD <br /><br />e. DOC <br /><br />10. Untuk menghapus field tertentu yang dipilih adalah …<br /><br />a. Delete – row <br /><br />b. Delete – coloum <br /><br />c. Delete – record <br /><br />d. Delete – field <br /><br />e. Delete – table <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Internet <br /><br />11. WWW singkatan dari …<br /><br />a. Word wide web <br /><br />b. Wide word web <br /><br />c. Word web wide <br /><br />d. Wide word web <br /><br />e. Wide web word <br /><br />12. Kumpulan komputer yang terhubung satu dengan yang lain dalam sebuah jaringan disebut …<br /><br />a. Chatting <br /><br />b. Provider <br /><br />c. Bluetooth <br /><br />d. Internet <br /><br />e. Browsing <br /><br />13. Berdasarkan skala jaringan-jaringan komputer dibagi menjadi beberapa macam, kecuali …<br /><br />a. WIFI <br /><br />b. FTP <br /><br />c. WAN <br /><br />d. MAN <br /><br />e. LAN <br /><br />14. IRC adalah fasilitas internet yang digunakan untuk …<br /><br />a. Kirim pesan <br /><br />b. Upload file <br /><br />c. Chatting / percakapan <br /><br />d. Mencari informasi / situs <br /><br />e. Download <br /><br />15. Internet dibentuk oleh department pertahanan Amerika Serikat pada tahun …<br /><br />a. 1954<br /><br />b. 1973<br /><br />c. 1969<br /><br />d. 1985<br /><br />e. 1988 <br /><br />16. Mendaftar E-mail ke penyedia pelayanan gratis sering disebut …<br /><br />a. login <br /><br />b. Sign up <br /><br />c. Attachment <br /><br />d. Account <br /><br />e. Freedom <br /><br />17. Setiap dokumen hypertext / hypermedia di internet memiliki alamat yang unik dan berbeda antara satu dengan lainnya yang disebut …<br /><br />a. www<br /><br />b. html <br /><br />c. http <br /><br />d. URL <br /><br />e. homepage <br /><br />18. Untuk masuk dan membaca pesan E-mail langkah pertama yang kita lakukan adalah …<br /><br />a. Sign in <br /><br />b. Sign out <br /><br />c. Log in <br /><br />d. Sign up <br /><br />e. Account <br /><br /><br />19. Surat yang digunakan untuk mengirim pesan lewat internet disebut …<br /><br />a. Facebook <br /><br />b. E-mail <br /><br />c. E-card <br /><br />d. E-library <br /><br />e. Chatting <br /><br />20. Berikut ini yang merupakan sifat-sifat E-mail, kecuali …<br /><br />a. Sarana komunikasi yang murah <br /><br />b. Dapat dikirim dengan cepat <br /><br />c. Dapat mengirim surat sebanyak mungkin <br /><br />d. Dapat melampirkan file-file <br /><br />e. Panjang surat yang dikirim dibatasi <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Jaringan <br /><br />21. Jaringan komputer yang mencakup area sangat luas dari segi geografis adalah …<br /><br />a. LAN <br /><br />b. RAM <br /><br />c. WAN <br /><br />d. MAN <br /><br />e. Internet <br /><br />22. Jaringan yang terdapat dalam sebuah gedung atau perkantoran adalah …<br /><br />a. MAN <br /><br />b. Internet <br /><br />c. RAM <br /><br />d. LAN <br /><br />e. WAN <br /><br />23. Kekurangan menggunakan modem …<br /><br />a. Pemasangan mudah <br /><br />b. Harga murah <br /><br />c. Harga mahal <br /><br />d. Pemasangan sulit <br /><br />e. Tidak memakan ram <br /><br />24. Di bawah ini yang tidak termasuk salah satu ISP adalah …<br /><br />a. PDAM <br /><br />b. Google <br /><br />c. PLN <br /><br />d. Telkom <br /><br />e. Internet <br /><br />25. Kepanjangan dari LAN …<br /><br />a. Legal Area Network <br /><br />b. Local Area Network <br /><br />c. Login Area Network <br /><br />d. Linear Area Network <br /><br />e. Log up Area Network <br /><br />26. Topologi yang bentuknya seperti bintang adalah …<br /><br />a. Token ring <br /><br />b. Star <br /><br />c. Peer to peer <br /><br />d. MAN <br /><br />e. Bus<br /><br />27. Salah satu keuntungan menggunakan topologi Bus adalah …<br /><br />a. Layout kabel rumit <br /><br />b. Menggunakan repeater <br /><br />c. Hemat kabel <br /><br />d. Peer to peer <br /><br />e. Lalu lintas data cepat <br /><br />28. Dalam suatu jaringan komputer yang bertindak sebagai administrator atau pengelola jaringan disebut …<br /><br />a. Laptop<br /><br />b. Client <br /><br />c. Notebook <br /><br />d. Server <br /><br />e. ISP <br /><br />29. Diantara topologi berikut yang pengembangan jaringannya paling fleksibel, adalah …<br /><br />a. RJ-45<br /><br />b. Bus <br /><br />c. Star <br /><br />d. Token ring <br /><br />e. Peer to peer <br /><br />30. Kepanjangan dari MAN adalah …<br /><br />a. Maintenance Area Network <br /><br />b. Metropolitan Area Network <br /><br />c. Micro Area Network <br /><br />d. Micropolitan Area Network <br /><br />e. Microsoft Area Network <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />KUNCI JAWABAN<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />MS. ACCESS <br /><br />1. E 6. B<br /><br />2. A 7. C<br /><br />3. B 8. A<br /><br />4. D 9. B<br /><br />5. B 10. D<br /><br /><br /><br /><br />INTERNET <br /><br />11. A 16. D <br /><br />12. D 17. D <br /><br />13. A 18. A <br /><br />14. E 19. B <br /><br />15. C 20. E <br /><br /><br /><br /><br />JARINGAN <br /><br />21. C 26. B<br /><br />22. A 27. C<br /><br />23. D 28. D<br /><br />24. B 29. C<br /><br />25. B 30. B<br /><br />Sumber: <a href="http://id.shvoong.com/internet-and-technologies/software/2334760-contoh-soal-test-ujian-tulis/#ixzz2KvqkBFmd">http://id.shvoong.com/internet-and-technologies/software/2334760-contoh-soal-test-ujian-tulis/#ixzz2KvqkBFmd</a></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-29577664841069279522013-02-07T19:02:00.001-08:002013-02-21T18:51:35.141-08:00Mengoperasikan Software Presentasi (Power Point)<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br /><br />Pilihan ganda soal dan jawaban uas tik kelas xii 40 butir. 5 uraian soal dan jawaban uas tik kelas xii.<br /><br /><br />Berilah tanda silang (X) pada huruf a, b, c, d atau e di depan jawaban yang benar!<br /><br /><br />1. Jenis komunikasi visual adalah ….<br /><br />a. komunikasi yang mengandalkan penciuman<br /><br />b. komunikasi yang mengandalkan alat pengecap<br /><br />c. komunikasi yang mengandalkan alat pendengaran<br /><br />d. komunikasi yang mengandalkan alat penglihatan<br /><br />e. komunikasi dua arah<br /><br /><br />2. Berikut merupakan prinsip dasar dari sebuah desain grafis yaitu ….<br /><br />a. preposisi<br /><br />b. chaos<br /><br />c. komposisi<br /><br />d. integrasi<br /><br />e. intuisi<br /><br /><br />3. Di bawah ini merupakan program-program desain grafis, yaitu ….<br /><br />a. SPSS<br /><br />b. Outlook Express<br /><br />c. Mozilla Firefox<br /><br />d.<a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xii/mengolah-gambar-adobe-photoshop/"><span style="color: black;"> Photoshop</span></a><br /><br />e. Mathlab<br /><br /><br />4. Berikut ini adalah desain grafis yang berbasis vektor, yaitu ….<br /><br />a. CorelPHOTO-PAINT<br /><br />b. <span style="color: black;"><a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xii/memiringkan-dan-mengubah-ukuran-objek-coreldraw-x3/"><span style="color: black;">CorelDRAW</span></a></span><br />c. Photoshop<br /><br />d. <a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-x/memformat-sel-excel-2007/"><span style="color: black;">Microsoft Excel</span></a><br /><br />e. Notepad<br /><br /><br />5. Ciri utama dari grafis berbasis vektor adalah ….<br /><br />a. tidak resolution dependent<br /><br />b. resolution dependent<br /><br />c. bertumpu pada pixel<br /><br />d. bertumpu pada dot<br /><br />e. pecah jika diperbesar<br /><br /><br />6. Berikut ini adalah hasil dari desain grafis dengan menggunakan Corel DRAW adalah ….<br /><br />a. logo sekolah<br /><br />b. Banner<br /><br />c. edit foto<br /><br />d. rancang bangunan<br /><br />e. Grafik<br /><br /><br />7.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image1.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Gambar tersebut menunjukkan perintah ….<br /><br />a. membuka lembar kerja baru<br /><br />b. membuka dokumen grafis yang telah disimpan pada folder<br /><br />c. membuka file dari template<br /><br />d. menyimpan dokumen hasil kerja<br /><br />e. Mengubah nama file<br /><br /><br />8.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image2.jpg" /><br /><br />Gambar di atas menunjukkan ….<br /><br />a. ikon<br /><br />b. Title bar<br /><br />c. Menu bar<br /><br />d. Task bar<br /><br />e. Tool bar<br /><br /><br />9.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image3.jpg" /><br /><br />Tampilan di atas ini menunjukkan ….<br /><br />a. jumlah gambar yang telah di simpan dalam folder<br /><br />b. jumlah ikon yang terdapat pada property bar<br /><br />c. jumlah media penyimpanan pada folder<br /><br />d. jumlah lembar kerja pada satu file<br /><br />e. jumlah file dalam suatu objek<br /><br /><br />10.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image4.jpg" /><br /><br />Ikon di samping menunjukkan perintah untuk ….<br /><br />a. memperbesar tampilan objek<br /><br />b. memotong objek<br /><br />c. menyimpan hasil kerja<br /><br />d. membuka file<br /><br />e. menghapus objek<br /><br /><br />11.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image5.jpg" /><br /><br />Ikon tersebut menunjukkan perintah untuk ….<br /><br />a. menyimpan file<br /><br />b. mencetak lembar kerja<br /><br />c. melihat desain sebelum dicetak pada tampilan monitor<br /><br />d. mengirimkan file ke format lainnya<br /><br />e. membuka file dalam dokumen<br /><br /><br />12.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image6.jpg" /><br /><br />Ikon tersebut menunjukkan perintah untuk ….<br /><br />a. membuat objek elips<br /><br />b. membuat objek kotak<br /><br />c. membuat objek spiral<br /><br />d. membuat objek Polygon<br /><br />e. membuat objek nerupa teks<br /><br /><br />13.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image7.jpg" /><br /><br />Ikon tersebut menunjukkan perintah untuk ….<br /><br />a. Blending<br /><br />b. Contour<br /><br />c. Envelope<br /><br />d. Extrude<br /><br />e. Texture<br /><br /><br />14. Objek bintang dapat dibentuk dengan menggunakan ikon ….<br /><br />a. Rectangle Tool<br /><br />b. Ellipse Tool<br /><br />c. Polygon Tool<br /><br />d. Bezier Tool<br /><br />e. Text Tool<br /><br /><br />15.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image8.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Ikon tersebut menunjukkan perintah untuk ….<br /><br />a. memberikan warna tunggal pada objek<br /><br />b. memberikan warna gradasi pada objek<br /><br />c. memberikan warna texture pada objek<br /><br />d. memberikan warna pattern pada objek<br /><br />e. memberikan warna contour<br /><br /><br />16. Membuat objek bintang segi banyak dapat dibuat dengan menggunakan ….<br /><br />a. Basic Shape<br /><br />b. Rectanguler<br /><br />c. Polygon<br /><br />d. Spiral<br /><br />e. Ellipse<br /><br /><br />17.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image9.jpg" /><br /><br />Tampilan tersebut menunjukkan ….<br /><br />a. posisi orientasi kertas<br /><br />b. ukuran panjang kertas<br /><br />c. ukuran lebar kertas<br /><br />d. menyimpan hasil kerja<br /><br />e. posisi pada saat mencetak<br /><br /><br />18. Memunculkan garis-garis grid pada tampilan CorelDRAW dapat dilakukan dengan ….<br /><br />a. pilih menu File > Grid<br /><br />b. pilih menu View > Grid<br /><br />c. pilih menu Text > Grid<br /><br />d. pilih menu File > Open<br /><br />e. pilih menu Text > Line<br /><br /><br />19. Mengisikan teks pada lembar kerja CorelDRAW, pertama kali harus mengklik ikon ….<br /><br />a. Rectangle Tool<br /><br />b. Bezier Tool<br /><br />c. Text Tool<br /><br />d. Ellipse Tool<br /><br />e. Spiral Tool<br /><br /><br />20.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image10.jpg" /><br /><br />Objek tersebut dapat dibentuk dengan menggunakan ….<br /><br />a. Bezier Tool<br /><br />b. Ellipse Tool<br /><br />c. Rectangle Tool<br /><br />d. Polygon Tool<br /><br />e. Spiral Tool<br /><br /><br />21.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image11.jpg" /><br /><br />Ikon disamping menunjukkan perintah ….<br /><br />a. menunjukkan lebar sebuah objek<br /><br />b. memutar objek dengan angka tertentu<br /><br />c. menebalkan garis luar pada objek<br /><br />d. menyimpan objek pada folder tertentu<br /><br />e. membalikan objek<br /><br /><br />22.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image12.jpg" /><br /><br />Objek tesebut dibuat dengan menggunakan ….<br /><br />a. Bezier Tool<br /><br />b. Shape Tool<br /><br />c. Preset Tool<br /><br />d. Brush Tool<br /><br />e. Blending Tool<br /><br /><br />23.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image13.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Efek yang digunakan untuk membuat objek di atas adalah ….<br /><br />a. Contour<br /><br />b. Blending<br /><br />c. Envelope<br /><br />d. Weld<br /><br />e. Texture<br /><br /><br />24.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image14.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Ikon di samping menunjukkan informasi ….<br /><br />a. jumlah efek blending pada objek<br /><br />b. jumlah banyaknya efek kontur pada objek<br /><br />c. derajat kemiringan pada objek<br /><br />d. jumlah warna pada objek<br /><br />e. bayangan pada objek<br /><br /><br />25.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image15.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Ikon tersebut akan menimbulkan efek … pada objek<br /><br />a. lensa<br /><br />b. shadow<br /><br />c. kontur<br /><br />d. envelope<br /><br />e. Texture<br /><br /><br />26.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-uas-tik-kelas-xii/image16.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Efek yang digunakan untuk membuat objek di atas adalah ….<br /><br />a. Envelope<br /><br />b. Kontur<br /><br />c. Lens<br /><br />d. Shadow<br /><br />e. Texture<br /><br /><br />27. Menggabungkan dua buah objek menjadi satu objek, dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan efek ….<br /><br />a. Trim<br /><br />b. Weld<br /><br />c. Intersect<br /><br />d. Group<br /><br />e. Union<br /><br /><br />28. Untuk memperoleh objek sisa dari hasil potongan antara dua objek dapat dilakukan dengan ….<br /><br />a. efek Trim<br /><br />b. efek Weld<br /><br />c. efek Intersect<br /><br />d. efek Envelope<br /><br />e. efek Outer glow<br /><br /><br />29. Hal yang dilakukan untuk memulai program CorelDRAW adalah ….<br /><br />a. klik Start<br /><br />b. klik Program<br /><br />c. klik Open<br /><br />d. klik Close<br /><br />e. klik New<br /><br /><br />30. Fasilitas untuk mendapatkan informasi tentang fungsi ikon adalah ….<br /><br />a. New Graphic<br /><br />b. Corel Tutorial<br /><br />c. CorelDRAW Installation<br /><br />d. What’s New<br /><br />e. Page Setup<br /><br /><br />31. Perintah untuk memperbaiki kualitas isian pada sebuah objek adalah ….<br /><br />a. menu Tool > Options > Preview Fountain Steps<br /><br />b. Format > Color Palette<br /><br />c. Text > Fit Text to Path<br /><br />d. File > Save As<br /><br />e. Format > Out line<br /><br /><br />32.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image3.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Gambar di atas merupakan gambar untuk menuliskan ….<br /><br />a. nama Jenis file<br /><br />b. folder tempat penyimpanan file<br /><br />c. penamaan file<br /><br />d. jenis huruf<br /><br />e. ukuran Font<br /><br /><br />33.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image4.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Nama flyout pada gambar di atas adalah ….<br /><br />a. Elipse Tool<br /><br />b. Rectangle Tool<br /><br />c. Bezier Tool<br /><br />d. Spiral Tool<br /><br />e. Octagon Tool<br /><br /><br />34. Cara cepat yang dapat dilakukan untuk melakukan penggandaan sebuah objek adalah ….<br /><br />a. pilih copy objek kemudian pilih paste objek<br /><br />b. pilih Ctrl+C kemudian pilih Ctrl+V<br /><br />c. tekan secara bersama-sama Ctrl+D<br /><br />d. tekan secara bersama-sama Alt+D<br /><br />e. tekan secara bersama-sama Ctrl+V<br /><br /><br />35. Perintah yang dapat dilakukan untuk membuat salinan objek agar posisi penempatannya tepat secara matematis adalah ….<br /><br />a. Arrange > Transformation > Position<br /><br />b. Arrange > Transformation > Convert to Curve<br /><br />c. Arrange > Transformation > Save As<br /><br />d. Arrange > Transformation > Skew<br /><br />e. Arrange > Transformation > Save<br /><br /><br />36.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image5.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Tampilan di atas ini adalah flyout untuk ….<br /><br />a. memberikan warna tunggal pada objek<br /><br />b. memberikan warna Pattern pada objek<br /><br />c. memberikan warna Texture pada objek<br /><br />d. memberikan warna Gradasi pada objek<br /><br />e. memberikan bayangan pada objek<br /><br /><br />37. Untuk membuat efek salinan di antara dua objek, gunakan efek ….<br /><br />a. Kontur<br /><br />b. Blend<br /><br />c. Lensa<br /><br />d. Transparency<br /><br />e. Outer Glow<br /><br /><br />38.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image6.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Flyout di atas adalah ikon untuk membuat efek ….<br /><br />a. kontur<br /><br />b. lensa<br /><br />c. bayangan<br /><br />d. transparan<br /><br />e. 3D<br /><br /><br />39.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image7.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Gambar di atas adalah property bar yang menunjukkan ….<br /><br />a. identitas ukuran dari sebuah objek<br /><br />b. tampilan property bar yang menunjukkan arah dari sebuah objek<br /><br />c. jumlah banyaknya objek pada dua objek yang diberi efek Blend<br /><br />d. tidak aktifnya efek blend pada objek<br /><br />e. ukuran font<br /><br /><br />40.<br /><br /><br /><img src="http://static.sman10garut.sch.id/wp-content/uploads/media/soal-corel-draw/image8.jpg" /><br /><br /><br />Flyout di atas dapat memberikan efek … pada objek<br /><br />a. Blending<br /><br />b. Envelope<br /><br />c. Transparent<br /><br />d. Kontur<br /><br />e. 3D<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br />Kunci Jawaban<br /><br />1. d 9. d 17. a 25. b<br /><br />3. d 11. b 19. c 27. d<br /><br />5. a 13. b 21. b<br /><br />7. b 15. c 23. a<br /><br />29. a 33. b 30. b 34. c<br /><br />31. a 35. a 32. c 36. c<br /><br />37. b 38. d 39. c 20. d<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xii/soal-dan-jawaban-uas-tik-kelas-xii/">http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xii/soal-dan-jawaban-uas-tik-kelas-xii/</a></div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-5981537458432253872013-02-07T18:29:00.001-08:002013-02-07T18:29:14.556-08:00Soal Jawaban UAS TIK XI Semester Genap<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt; letter-spacing: 1.2pt;">Soal Jawaban UAS TIK XI Semester Genap<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Pilihan ganda Soal
Jawaban UAS TIK XI Genap 2012 40 butir. 5 uraian Soal Jawaban UAS TIK XI Genap
2012<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. Pilihlah jawaban
yang benar.</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Program pengolah
angka dikenal juga dengan nama ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. Word Processor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. Browser<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. Spreadsheet<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. Image Editor<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. Database<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Nama <i>file </i>kerja
yang sedang Anda gunakan (aktif) akan tampak pada … Microsoft Excel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <i>Title Bar</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xi/menu-dan-ikon-microsoft-excel-2007/" title="Menu dan Ikon Microsoft Excel 2007"><i><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Tool Bar</span></i></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <i>Ribbon</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <i>Office
Button</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <i>Status Bar</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Menu berikut yang <i>tidak </i>terdapat
pada <i>Office Button </i>adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>New </b>d. <b>Copy</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Open </b>e. <b>Print</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Save</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">4</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Halaman yang berisi tombol-tombol untuk pengeditan dokumen terdapat pada <i>ribbon </i>….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Home</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Page
Layout</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Formula</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Data</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">5</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Tombol pengurutan terdapat pada <i>ribbon </i>….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Home</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Page
Layout</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Formula</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Data</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">6</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Bagian yang berisi tombol-tombol sebagai jalan pintas untuk memanggil
perintahperintah tertentu disebut ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <i>Scrollbar</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <i>Title Bar</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Quick
Access Toolbar</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Ribbon</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Office
Button</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">7</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. <i>Shortcut
keys </i>yang digunakan untuk membuat <i>workbook </i>baru
adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Alt + F4</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Ctrl + N</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Ctrl + C</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Alt + C</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Ctrl + X</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">8</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Kumpulan beberapa sel disebut ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-x/mengolah-worksheet-excel-2007/" title="Mengolah Worksheet Excel 2007"><i><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Worksheet</span></i></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-x/memformat-sel-excel-2007/" title="Memformat Sel Excel 2007"><i><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Range</span></i></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <i>Column</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <i>Row</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <i>Formula
Bar</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">9</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk membingkai sel atau sekelompok sel maka digunakan tombol ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Autoshape</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Rectangel</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Fill</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Border</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Graphic</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">10</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Memberi warna latar pada sel dapat dilakukan menggunakan tombol ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Fill</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Border</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Format</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Chart</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">11</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Berikut yang <i>tidak </i>terdapat pada menu <i>dropdown </i><b>Insert </b>adalah
….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Insert
Cell</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Insert
Sheet Row</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Insert
Sheet Column</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Insert
Sheet</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Insert
File</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">12</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Penulisan formula pada sel selalu diawali dengan ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. =<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. *<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. for<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. +<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. –<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">13</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Ikon <i>cut</i>, <i>copy</i>, dan <i>paste </i>terdapat
pada menu ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Home</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Data</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Formula</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>View</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">14</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Formula yang digunakan untuk menjumlahkan sekelompok nilai adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. ADD<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. MIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. MAX<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. AVERAGE<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. SUM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">15</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Nilai terbesar dari suatu kelompok data dapat dicari menggunakan fungsi ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. MIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. MAX<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. IF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xi/perhitungan-statistik-microsoft-excel-2007/" title="Perhitungan Statistik Microsoft Excel 2007"><span style="color: black; mso-themecolor: text1; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">AVERAGE</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. SUM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">16. Fungsi berikut
yang <i>tidak </i>termasuk kelompok fungsi manipulasi <i>string </i>adalah
….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. LEFT<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. MID<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. RIGHT<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. DOWN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. semua benar<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">17. Fungsi IF dalam
MS Excel adalah fungsi jenis ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. trigonometri<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. manipulasi string<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. statistik<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. logika<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. manipulasi data<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">18. Agar tabel hanya
menampilkan data-data sesuai kriteria yang dimasukkan, harus dilakukan ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. editing<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. deleting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. filtering<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. tabulasi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. penyisipan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">19. Sebelum mulai
mencetak sebuah dokumen sebaiknya Anda memeriksanya dengan ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Page Setup</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Quick
Print</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Print
Preview</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Publish</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Print
Range</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">20. Untuk mengatur
tata letak cetakan, menu yang dipilih adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Print
Range</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Page Setup</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Quick
Print</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Print
Preview</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Publish</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">21</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Formula = MAX () pada program Excel digunakan untuk ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. mencari nilai
terkecil dari sekelompok data<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. menghitung
rata-rata dari sekelompok nilai<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. mencari nilai
terbesar dari sekelompok data<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. menjumlahkan
sekelompok nilai<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. mencari angka dari
sekelompok data<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">22</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk melakukan penjumlahan data pada Excel digunakan formula .…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. AVERAGE<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. MIN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. MAX<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. SUM<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. IF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">23</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Berikut penulisan formula penjumlahan yang benar adalah .…<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. = sum (B2 – B7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. = sum (B3 – B8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. = sum (C2 * D2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. = sum (B4 : C4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. = sum (B2 = B7)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">24</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Fungsi <i>Look up </i>adalah untuk ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. mencocokkan teks
dengan daftar IF<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. mencocokkan teks
dengan tabel referensi<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. mencocokkan teks
dengan pernyataan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. mencocokkan teks
dengan sintak<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. mencocokkan teks
dengan keadaan<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">25</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk menghasilkan ONE dari tulisan INDONESIA, digunakan perintah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. = RIGHT
(“INDONESIA”, 4,3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. = MID
(“INDONESIA”, 1,3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. = MID
(“INDONESIA”, 3,3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. = LEFT
(“INDONESIA”, 3,3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. = MID
(“INDONESIA”, 4,3)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">26</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">. Perintah
yang digunakan untuk membuat grafik adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Format
Object</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Edit Chart</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Insert
Chart</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Format
Chart</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Insert
Object</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">27</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Jika pada suatu sel terdapat pernyataan “#VALUE!”, yang harus Anda lakukan
adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. menghapus isi sel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. mengklik <i>undo</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. memeriksa nilai
pada sel<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. mengklik <i>redo</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. menyisipkan sel
baru<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">28</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Pengurutan data dilakukan dengan cara mengklik sel yang akan diurutkan kemudian
pada<b>Ribbon </b>diklik pada grup ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Sort and
filter</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Cell
styles</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Format</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Find and Select</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">29</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk menyisipkan objek gambar ke dalam dokumen, <i>tab </i>pada <b>Ribbon </b>yang
harus diklik adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Data</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Home</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Insert</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Formulas</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Review</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">30</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Berikut ini penulisan formula menghitung rata-rata yang benar adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. = SUM (B4 + C4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. = AVERAGE (B4 :
C4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. = AVERAGE (B4 :
G8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. = MAX (B2 + C2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. = MIN (B4 + C4)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">31</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk menyisipkan simbol “±” saat membuat suatu dokumen, langkah yang harus
dilakukan adalah dengan mengklik ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Insert </b>> <b>Text
Box </b>> ±<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Review </b>> <b>Spelling</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Insert </b>> <b>Symbol </b>–
±<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Page
Layout </b>> <b>Print titles</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Formulas </b>> <b>Insert
Function</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">32</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Agar tampilan pada dokumen menjadi menarik dapat disisipkan gambar yang telah
disediakan oleh Microsoft Office, yaitu ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <i>Template</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <i>Wallpaper</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <i>Background</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <i>Shapes</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <i>Clip Art</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">33</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk mengganti ukuran kertas yang akan diprint, pada kotak dialog <b>Page
Setup </b>dipilih <i>tab</i>….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Page</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Margins</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Header/Footer</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Sheet</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Border</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">34</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Sebelum memulai pencetakan, dokumen sebaiknya diperiksa terlebih dahulu dengan
….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Page Setup</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Quick
Print</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Print
Preview</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Publish</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Print
Range</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">35</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">.
Untuk mengatur tata letak cetakan, menu yang dipilih ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Print
Range</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Page Setup</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Quick
Print</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Print
Preview</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Publish</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">36. Untuk memberi
bingkai pada sel, menu yang harus dipilih pada kotak dialog <b>Format
Cells</b>adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <i>Number</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <i>Alignment</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <i>Borders</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <i>Font</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <i>Fill</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">37. Menu yang harus
dipilih untuk memperlebar atau mempersempit ukuran kolom pada<i>worksheet </i>adalah
….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <i>Insert
Sheet Column</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <i>Insert
Sheet</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <i>Borders</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <i>Row Height</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <i>Column
Widht</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">38. Untuk menembah
garis dalam Excel, perintah yang diklik pada menu Insert adalah ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. <b>Insert
Cells</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. <b>Insert
Sheet Rows</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. <b>Insert
Sheet Column</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. <b>Insert
Sheet</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. <b>Insert
Name</b><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">39. Berikut merupakan
tombol yang digunakan dalam memformat teks agar menjadi miring, yaitu ….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. Ctrl+B<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. Ctrl+I<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. Ctrl+U<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. Ctrl+S<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. Ctrl+O<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">40. Pengertian dari <i>range </i>adalah
….<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">a. pertemuan antara <i>worksheet</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">b. pertemuan antara <i>workbook</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">c. kumpulan sel sembarang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">d. kumpulan sel
berbentuk persegi panjang<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">e. pertemuan antara
garis dan kolom<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">B. Uraian</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. Jelaskan perbedaan
antara sel absolut dan sel relatif?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. Jelaskan definisi
dari baris dan kolom yang terdapat dalam lembar kerja Excel!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. Sebutkan beberapa
shortcut yang ada di Microsoft Excel beserta fungsinya!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. Jelaskan langkah
untuk melebarkan kolom dalam Microsoft Excel 2007!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">5. Sebutkan beberapa
hal yang harus diperhatikan apabila kita memasukkan data ke dalam suatu sel!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">Kunci Jawaban</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">A. Pilihlah Ganda</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">1. c 11. e<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">2. a 12. a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">3. d 13. a<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">4. a 14. e<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">5. a 15. b<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">6. c 16. d<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">7. b 17. d<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">8. b 18. c<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">9. d 19. c<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">10. a 20. b<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">21. c 26. e 31. c 36.
c<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">22. d 27. c 32. e37.
eljkhup<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">23. d 28. a 33. a38.
b<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">24. b 29. c 34. c39.
b<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">25. c 30. b 35. b40.
d<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;">B.Uraian</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<ol start="1" type="1">
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Sel absolute adalah sel yang
terkunci pada kedua bagian, yaitu kolom dan baris sel relative/sel
bebas/normal, yaitu sel yang tidak terkunci pada bagian baris maupun
kolomnya.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Baris adalah bagian dari lemar
kerja excel yang membujur disimbolkan dengan huruf A,B,C,D dan sterusnya,
sedangkan kolom adalah bagian dari excel yang disimbolkan dengan angka.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Icon menu control, Shorcut
print, save As, Save, Open, Send, Pubhlish, Prepared<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Klik tab menu home > cell
> pilih Format akan muncul cell size > pilih ukuran column width.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
<li class="MsoNormal" style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: IN;">Memperhatikan jenis datanya,
menggunakan operator yang sesuai.<o:p></o:p></span></li>
</ol>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 36.0pt; mso-line-height-alt: 11.25pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><a href="http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xi/soal-jawaban-uas-tik-xi-genap-2012/">http://budisma.web.id/materi/sma/tik-kelas-xi/soal-jawaban-uas-tik-xi-genap-2012/</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-66673014033647510152013-01-21T04:26:00.000-08:002013-01-21T04:26:07.670-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<h1 class="firstHeading" id="firstHeading" lang="en" style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 1.6em; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 0px 0px 0.1em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">
<span dir="auto">Domain Name System</span></h1>
<div id="bodyContent" style="font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 0.8em; line-height: 1.5em; position: relative; width: 1125px;">
<div id="siteSub" style="display: inline; font-size: 12px;">
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
<div id="contentSub" style="color: #7d7d7d; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.2em; margin: 0px 0px 1.4em 1em; width: auto;">
</div>
<div class="mw-jump" id="jump-to-nav" style="height: 0px; margin-bottom: 1.4em; margin-top: -1.4em; overflow: hidden; zoom: 1;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#mw-head" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"></a><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#p-search" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"></a></div>
<div class="mw-content-ltr" dir="ltr" id="mw-content-text" lang="en" style="direction: ltr;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks hlist" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-spacing: 0.4em 0px; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: right; float: right; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; margin: 0px 0px 1em 1em; padding: 0.2em; text-align: center; width: 22em;"><tbody>
<tr><th class="" style="font-size: 16px; line-height: 1.2em; padding: 0.2em 0.4em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_protocol_suite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="Internet protocol suite">Internet protocol suite</a></th></tr>
<tr><th class="" style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_layer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="Application layer">Application layer</a></th></tr>
<tr><td class="" style="padding: 0px 0.1em 0.4em;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol">DHCP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DHCPv6" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DHCPv6">DHCPv6</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><strong class="selflink">DNS</strong></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="File Transfer Protocol">FTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">HTTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Message Access Protocol">IMAP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Relay Chat">IRC</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Lightweight Directory Access Protocol">LDAP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_Gateway_Control_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Media Gateway Control Protocol">MGCP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_News_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Network News Transfer Protocol">NNTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_Gateway_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Border Gateway Protocol">BGP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Network Time Protocol">NTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Post Office Protocol">POP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_procedure_call" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Remote procedure call">RPC</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real-time_Transport_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Real-time Transport Protocol">RTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Time_Streaming_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Real Time Streaming Protocol">RTSP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Routing_Information_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Routing Information Protocol">RIP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Session Initiation Protocol">SIP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Mail_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Simple Mail Transfer Protocol">SMTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Network_Management_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Simple Network Management Protocol">SNMP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SOCKS" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="SOCKS">SOCKS</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Secure Shell">SSH</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Telnet">Telnet</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Layer_Security" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Transport Layer Security">TLS/SSL</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Messaging_and_Presence_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol">XMPP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Application_layer_protocols" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Category:Application layer protocols">(more)</a></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr><th class="" style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_layer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="Transport layer">Transport layer</a></th></tr>
<tr><td class="" style="padding: 0px 0.1em 0.4em;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Transmission Control Protocol">TCP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="User Datagram Protocol">UDP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Datagram_Congestion_Control_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Datagram Congestion Control Protocol">DCCP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stream_Control_Transmission_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Stream Control Transmission Protocol">SCTP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_Reservation_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Resource Reservation Protocol">RSVP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Transport_layer_protocols" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Category:Transport layer protocols">(more)</a></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr><th class="" style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_layer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="Internet layer">Internet layer</a></th></tr>
<tr><td class="" style="padding: 0px 0.1em 0.4em;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Protocol">IP</a> <ul style="display: inline; line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: normal;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv4">IPv4</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv6">IPv6</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Control_Message_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Control Message Protocol">ICMP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICMPv6" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ICMPv6">ICMPv6</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_Congestion_Notification" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Explicit Congestion Notification">ECN</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Group_Management_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Group Management Protocol">IGMP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPsec" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPsec">IPsec</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Internet_layer_protocols" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Category:Internet layer protocols">(more)</a></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
<tr><th class="" style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_layer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="Link layer">Link layer</a></th></tr>
<tr><td class="" style="padding: 0px 0.1em 0.4em;"><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_Resolution_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Address Resolution Protocol">ARP/InARP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neighbor_Discovery_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Neighbor Discovery Protocol">NDP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Shortest_Path_First" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Open Shortest Path First">OSPF</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunneling_protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Tunneling protocol">Tunnels</a> <ul style="display: inline; line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: normal;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Layer_2_Tunneling_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol">L2TP</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Point-to-point protocol">PPP</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Media_access_control" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Media access control">Media access control</a> <ul style="display: inline; line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: normal;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_subscriber_line" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Digital subscriber line">DSL</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Services_Digital_Network" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Integrated Services Digital Network">ISDN</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_Distributed_Data_Interface" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Fiber Distributed Data Interface">FDDI</a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Link_protocols" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Category:Link protocols">(more)</a></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
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<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The <b>Domain Name System</b> (<b>DNS</b>) is a [hierarchical] distributed naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet">Internet</a> or a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_network" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Private network">private network</a>. It associates various information with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name">domain names</a> assigned to each of the participating entities. Most prominently, it translates<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name">domain names</a> meaningful for users to the numerical <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IP address">IP addresses</a> needed for the purpose of locating computer services and devices worldwide. By providing a worldwide, distributed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_term" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Index term">keyword</a>-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet">Internet</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_directory" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Telephone directory">phone book</a> for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostname" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hostname">hostnames</a> into IP addresses. For example, the domain name <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Example.com" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Example.com">www.example.com</a> translates to the addresses 192.0.43.10 (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv4">IPv4</a>) and 2620:0:2d0:200::10 (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv6">IPv6</a>). Unlike a phone book, the DNS can be quickly updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same host name. Users take advantage of this when they recite meaningful <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Locator" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Uniform Resource Locator">Uniform Resource Locators</a> (URLs) and <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_address" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="E-mail address">e-mail addresses</a> without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The Domain Name System distributes the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to IP addresses by designating<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritative_name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Authoritative name server">authoritative name servers</a> for each domain. Authoritative name servers are assigned to be responsible for their particular domains, and in turn can assign other authoritative name servers for their sub-domains. This mechanism has made the DNS distributed and fault tolerant and has helped avoid the need for a single central register to be continually consulted and updated. Additionally, the responsibility for maintaining and updating the master record for the domains is spread among many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registrar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name registrar">domain name registrars</a>, who compete for the end-user's, domain-owner's, business. Domains can be moved from registrar to registrar at any time.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The Domain Name System also specifies the technical functionality of this database service. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and communication exchanges used in DNS, as part of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol_Suite" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Protocol Suite">Internet Protocol Suite</a>.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The Internet maintains two principal <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namespace" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Namespace">namespaces</a>, the domain name hierarchy<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1034_1-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1034-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> and the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Protocol">Internet Protocol</a> (IP) <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Address space">address spaces</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc781_2-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc781-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[2]</a></sup> The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a communication <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Network protocol">protocol</a> implement the Domain Name System.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1035_3-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain name, such as address (A) records, name server (NS) records, and mail exchanger (MX) records (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DNS_record_types" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="List of DNS record types">list of DNS record types</a>); a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.</div>
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<h2 style="background-image: none; border: none; display: inline; font-size: 12px; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding: 0px;">
Contents</h2>
<span class="toctoggle" style="-webkit-user-select: none; font-size: 11px;"> [<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#" id="togglelink" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">hide</a>] </span></div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0.3em 0px; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#History" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">History</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Structure" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Structure</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Domain_name_space" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Domain name space</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Domain_name_syntax" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Domain name syntax</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Internationalized_domain_names" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2.3</span> <span class="toctext">Internationalized domain names</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Name_servers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4</span> <span class="toctext">Name servers</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Authoritative_name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">2.4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Authoritative name server</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Operation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Operation</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Address_resolution_mechanism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Address resolution mechanism</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Recursive_and_caching_name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Recursive and caching name server</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#DNS_resolvers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">DNS resolvers</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Circular_dependencies_and_glue_records" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Circular dependencies and glue records</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Record_caching" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Record caching</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Reverse_lookup" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Reverse lookup</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Client_lookup" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.6</span> <span class="toctext">Client lookup</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Broken_resolvers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Broken resolvers</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Other_applications" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">3.7</span> <span class="toctext">Other applications</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Protocol_details" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Protocol details</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#DNS_resource_records" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">DNS resource records</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Wildcard_DNS_records" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Wildcard DNS records</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Protocol_extensions" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Protocol extensions</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Dynamic_zone_updates" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Dynamic zone updates</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Security_issues" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Security issues</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Domain_name_registration" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Domain name registration</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Internet_standards" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Internet standards</span></a><ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 2em; padding: 0px;">
<li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-26" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Security" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Security</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#See_also" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-28" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#References" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li>
<li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#External_links" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li>
</ul>
</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="History">History</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The practice of using a name as a simpler, more memorable abstraction of a host's numerical address on a network dates back to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPANET" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a> era. Before the DNS was invented in 1982, each computer on the network retrieved a file called <i>HOSTS.TXT</i> from a computer at SRI (now <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRI_International" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="SRI International">SRI International</a>).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc2467_4-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc2467-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[4]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[5]</a></sup> The HOSTS.TXT file mapped names to numerical addresses. A <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hosts_file" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hosts file">hosts file</a> still exists on most modern operating systems by default and generally contains a mapping of "localhost" to the IP address 127.0.0.1. Many operating systems use name resolution logic that allows the administrator to configure selection priorities for available name resolution methods.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The rapid growth of the network made a centrally maintained, hand-crafted HOSTS.TXT file unsustainable; it became necessary to implement a more scalable system capable of automatically disseminating the requisite information.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
At the request of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Postel" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Jon Postel">Jon Postel</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Mockapetris" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Paul Mockapetris">Paul Mockapetris</a> invented the Domain Name System in 1983 and wrote the first implementation. The original specifications were published by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc882" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 882</a> and <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc883" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 883</a>, which were superseded in November 1987 by <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1034" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1034</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1034_1-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1034-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> and <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1035</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1035_3-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> Several additional <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> have proposed various extensions to the core DNS protocols.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
In 1984, four <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_Berkeley" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="University of California, Berkeley">Berkeley</a> students—Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou—wrote the first <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Unix">Unix</a> implementation, called The Berkeley Internet Name Domain (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BIND" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="BIND">BIND</a>) Server.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[6]</a></sup>In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Digital Equipment Corporation">DEC</a> significantly re-wrote the DNS implementation. Mike Karels, Phil Almquist, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Vixie" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Paul Vixie">Paul Vixie</a> have maintained BIND since then. BIND was <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porting" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Porting">ported</a> to the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_NT" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Windows NT">Windows NT</a>platform in the early 1990s.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
BIND was widely distributed, especially on Unix systems, and is the dominant DNS software in use on the Internet.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[7]</a></sup> With the heavy use and resulting scrutiny of its open-source code, as well as increasingly more sophisticated attack methods, many security flaws were discovered in BIND<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from June 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. This contributed to the development of a number of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_DNS_server_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Comparison of DNS server software">alternative name server and resolver programs</a>. BIND version 9 was written from scratch and now has a security record comparable to other modern DNS software.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from January 2011">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Structure">Structure<span id="The_domain_name_space"></span></span></h2>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Domain name space">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Domain_name_space">Domain name space</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The domain name space consists of a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree_data_structure" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Tree data structure">tree</a> of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree has zero or more <i>resource records</i>, which hold information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into <i>zones</i> beginning at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_root_zone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS root zone">root zone</a>. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_zone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS zone">DNS zone</a> may consist of only one domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-domains, depending on the administrative authority delegated to the manager.</div>
<div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;">
<div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 402px;">
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Domain_name_space.svg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="319" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Domain_name_space.svg/400px-Domain_name_space.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Domain_name_space.svg/600px-Domain_name_space.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Domain_name_space.svg/800px-Domain_name_space.svg.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
<div class="magnify" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; float: right;">
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Domain_name_space.svg" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: initial;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
The hierarchical Domain Name System, organized into zones, each served by a name server</div>
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<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Administrative responsibility over any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority is said to be <i>delegated</i>for a portion of the old space, usually in the form of sub-domains, to another nameserver and administrative entity. The old zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Domain name syntax">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Domain_name_syntax">Domain name syntax</span></h3>
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The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1035</a>, <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1123" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1123</a>, and <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2181" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2181</a>. A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name">domain name</a> consists of one or more parts, technically called <i>labels</i>, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.com</tt>.</div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The right-most label conveys the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-level_domain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Top-level domain">top-level domain</a>; for example, the domain name <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">www.example.com</tt> belongs to the top-level domain <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">com</tt>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subdomain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Subdomain">subdomain</a> of the domain to the right. For example: the label <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example</tt> specifies a subdomain of the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">com</tt> domain, and <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">www</tt> is a sub domain of <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.com</tt>. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Each label may contain up to 63 characters. The full domain name may not exceed a total length of 253 characters in its external dotted-label specification.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[8]</a></sup> In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1034_1-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1034-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup> In practice, some <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name registry">domain registries</a> may have shorter limits.<sup class="Template-Fact" style="line-height: 1em; white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources from December 2010">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">DNS names may technically consist of any character representable in an octet. However, the allowed formulation of domain names in the DNS root zone, and most other sub domains, uses a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in a label are a subset of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> character set, and includes the characters <i>a</i> through <i>z</i>, <i>A</i>through <i>Z</i>, digits <i>0</i> through <i>9</i>, and the hyphen. This rule is known as the <i>LDH rule</i> (letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in case-independent manner.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[9]</a></sup> Labels may not start or end with a hyphen.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc3696_10-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc3696-10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[10]</a></sup></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostname" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hostname">hostname</a> is a domain name that has at least one IP address associated. For example, the domain names <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">www.example.com</tt> and <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.com</tt> are also hostnames, whereas the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">com</tt>domain is not.</li>
</ul>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Internationalized domain names">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Internationalized_domain_names">Internationalized domain names</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The permitted character set of the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ICANN">ICANN</a> has approved the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalized_domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internationalized domain name">Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications</a> (IDNA) system, which maps <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> strings into the valid DNS character set using <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punycode" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Punycode">Punycode</a>. In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of IDN country code top-level domains. In addition, many <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name registry">registries</a> of the existing top level domain names (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top-level_domain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Top-level domain">TLD</a>)s have adopted IDNA.</div>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Name servers">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Name_servers">Name servers</span></h3>
<div class="rellink relarticle mainarticle" style="font-style: italic; margin-bottom: 0.5em; padding-left: 1.6em;">
Main article: <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nameserver" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Nameserver">Nameserver</a></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The Domain Name System is maintained by a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_database" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Distributed database">distributed database</a> system, which uses the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Client-server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Client-server">client-server</a> model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_nameserver" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Root nameserver">root nameservers</a>, the servers to query when looking up (<i>resolving</i>) a TLD.</div>
<h4 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Authoritative name server">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Authoritative_name_server">Authoritative name server</span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
An <i>authoritative</i> name server is a name server that gives <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Authoritative_answer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">answers</a> that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers that were obtained via a regular DNS query to another name server. An authoritative-only name server only returns answers to queries about domain names that have been specifically configured by the administrator.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
An authoritative name server can either be a <i>master</i> server or a <i>slave</i> server. A master server is a server that stores the original (<i>master</i>) copies of all zone records. A slave server uses an automatic updating mechanism of the DNS protocol in communication with its master to maintain an identical copy of the master records.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
A set of authoritative name servers has to be assigned for every DNS zone. NS record about addresses of that set must be stored in parent zone and servers themselves (as self-reference).</div>
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When domain names are registered with a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registrar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name registrar">domain name registrar</a>, their installation at the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_registry" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain registry">domain registry</a> of a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_level_domain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Top level domain">top level domain</a> requires the assignment of a <i>primary</i> name server and at least one<i>secondary</i> name server. The requirement of multiple name servers aims to make the domain still functional even if one name server becomes inaccessible or inoperable.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-techterms_11-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-techterms-11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[11]</a></sup> The designation of a primary name server is solely determined by the priority given to the domain name registrar. For this purpose, generally only the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_qualified_domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Fully qualified domain name">fully qualified domain name</a> of the name server is required, unless the servers are contained in the registered domain, in which case the corresponding <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IP address">IP address</a> is needed as well.</div>
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Primary name servers are often master name servers, while secondary name server may be implemented as slave servers.</div>
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An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed <i>authoritative</i>, by setting a software flag (a protocol structure bit), called the <i>Authoritative Answer</i> (<i>AA</i>) bit in its responses.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1035_3-2" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools (such as <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Information_Groper" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain Information Groper">dig</a>) to indicate <i>that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.</i><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1035_3-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup></div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Operation">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Operation">Operation</span></h2>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Address resolution mechanism">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Address_resolution_mechanism">Address resolution mechanism</span></h3>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Domain name resolvers determine the appropriate domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.</div>
<div class="thumb tright" style="clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 1.3em 1.4em; width: auto;">
<div class="thumbinner" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); font-size: 12px; min-width: 100px; overflow: hidden; padding: 3px !important; text-align: center; width: 402px;">
<a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="142" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg/400px-An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg.png" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg/600px-An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg/800px-An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg.png 2x" style="background-color: white; border: 1px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); vertical-align: middle;" width="400" /></a><div class="thumbcaption" style="border: none; font-size: 11px; line-height: 1.4em; padding: 3px !important; text-align: left;">
<div class="magnify" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; float: right;">
<a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:An_example_of_theoretical_DNS_recursion.svg" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; color: #0b0080; display: block; text-decoration: initial;" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/static-1.21wmf7/skins/common/images/magnify-clip.png" style="background-image: none !important; background-position: initial initial !important; background-repeat: initial initial !important; border: none !important; display: block; vertical-align: middle;" width="15" /></a></div>
A DNS recursor consults three nameservers to resolve the address www.wikipedia.org.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The process entails:</div>
<ol style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 3.2em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A network host is configured with an initial cache (so called <i>hints</i>) of the known addresses of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_nameserver" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Root nameserver">root nameservers</a>. Such a <i>hint file</i> is updated periodically by an administrator from a reliable source.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A query to one of the root servers to find the server authoritative for the top-level domain.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A query to the obtained TLD server for the address of a DNS server authoritative for the second-level domain.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Repetition of the previous step to process each domain name label in sequence, until the final step which returns the IP address of the host sought.</li>
</ol>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The diagram illustrates this process for the host www.wikipedia.org.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The mechanism in this simple form would place a large operating burden on the root servers, with every search for an address starting by querying one of them. Being as critical as they are to the overall function of the system, such heavy use would create an insurmountable bottleneck for trillions of queries placed every day. In practice <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Record_caching" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">caching</a> is used in DNS servers to overcome this problem, and as a result, root nameservers actually are involved with very little of the total traffic.</div>
<h4 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 15px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=10" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Recursive and caching name server">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Recursive_and_caching_name_server">Recursive and caching name server</span></h4>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
In principle, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_root_zone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS root zone">root zone</a> of the Domain Name System and each user system must implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.</div>
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To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such <i>caching</i> DNS servers, also called <i>DNS caches</i>, also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.</div>
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The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.</div>
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<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_providers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet service providers">Internet service providers</a> typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursors to improve efficiency in the local network.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=11" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: DNS resolvers">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DNS_resolvers">DNS resolvers</span></h3>
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See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resolv.conf" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Resolv.conf">resolv.conf</a></div>
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The client-side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. It is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address.</div>
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A DNS query may be either a non-recursive query or a recursive query:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A <i>non-recursive query</i> is one in which the DNS server provides a record for a domain for which it is authoritative itself, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">A <i>recursive query</i> is one for which the DNS server will fully answer the query (or give an error) by querying other name servers as needed. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.</li>
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The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers.</div>
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Resolving usually entails iterating through several name servers to find the needed information. However, some resolvers function more simply by communicating only with a single name server. These simple resolvers (called "stub resolvers") rely on a recursive name server to perform the work of finding information for them.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Circular dependencies and glue records">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Circular_dependencies_and_glue_records">Circular dependencies and glue records</span></h3>
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Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the delegation is being provided, there is a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_dependency" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Circular dependency">circular dependency</a>. In this case the nameserver providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the authoritative nameserver mentioned in the delegation. This information is called <i>glue</i>. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the <i>additional section</i> of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the <i>answer section</i> of the response.</div>
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For example, if the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authoritative_name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Authoritative name server">authoritative name server</a> for <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.org</tt> is <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ns1.example.org</tt>, a computer trying to resolve <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">www.example.org</tt> first resolves <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ns1.example.org</tt>. Since <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ns1</tt> is contained in <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.org</tt>, this requires resolving <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.org</tt> first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the nameserver for the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">org</tt> <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_level_domain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Top level domain">top level domain</a> includes glue along with the delegation for <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">example.org</tt>. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ns1.example.org</tt>. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Record caching">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Record_caching">Record caching</span></h3>
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The DNS Resolution Process reduces the load on individual servers by <i>caching</i> DNS request records for a period of time after a response. This entails the local recording and subsequent consultation of the copy instead of initiating a new request upstream. The time for which a resolver caches a DNS response is determined by a value called the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_to_live" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Time to live">time to live</a> (TTL) associated with every record. The TTL is set by the administrator of the DNS server handing out the authoritative response. The period of validity may vary from just seconds to days or even weeks.</div>
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As a noteworthy consequence of this distributed and caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and refresh after the TTL. <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1912" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1912</a> conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.</div>
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Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to 68 years or no caching at all. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_cache" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Negative cache">Negative caching</a>, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the Start of Authority (SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the <i>MINIMUM</i> field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Reverse lookup">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Reverse_lookup">Reverse lookup</span></h3>
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A reverse lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (<tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">PTR</tt>) records within the infrastructure top-level domain <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.arpa" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title=".arpa">arpa</a>. For IPv4, the domain is <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">in-addr.arpa</tt>. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ip6.arpa</tt>. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.</div>
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When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats, and then queries the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assume the IPv4 address <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">208.80.152.2</tt> is assigned to Wikimedia. It is represented as a DNS name in reverse order like this: <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa</tt>. When the DNS resolver gets a PTR (reverse-lookup) request, it begins by querying the root servers (which point to The American Registry For Internet Numbers' (<a class="external text" href="https://www.arin.net/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">ARIN</a>'s) servers for the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">208.in-addr.arpa</tt>zone). On ARIN's servers, <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">152.80.208.in-addr.arpa</tt> is assigned to Wikimedia, so the resolver sends another query to the Wikimedia nameserver for <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa</tt>, which results in an authoritative response.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Client lookup">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Client_lookup">Client lookup</span></h3>
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DNS resolution sequence</div>
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Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_browser" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Web browser">web browsers</a>, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_client" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="E-mail client">e-mail clients</a>, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_resolver" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS resolver">DNS resolver</a> in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.</div>
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The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet service provider">Internet service provider</a> to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Host_Configuration_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol">DHCP</a> to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained nameservers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#Address_resolution_mechanism" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">above</a>, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Broken resolvers">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Broken_resolvers">Broken resolvers</span></h4>
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An additional level of complexity emerges when resolvers violate the rules of the DNS protocol. A number of large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules (presumably to allow them to run on less-expensive hardware than a fully compliant resolver), such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[12]</a></sup></div>
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As a final level of complexity, some applications (such as web-browsers) also have their own DNS cache, in order to reduce the use of the DNS resolver library itself. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues, as it obscures the freshness of data, and/or what data comes from which cache. These caches typically use very short caching times—on the order of one minute.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[13]</a></sup></div>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Explorer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Explorer">Internet Explorer</a> represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default time out value to half an hour, which may be changed in corresponding registry keys.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[14]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Other applications">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_applications">Other applications</span></h3>
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The system outlined above provides a somewhat simplified scenario. The Domain Name System includes several other functions:</div>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">Hostnames and IP addresses do not necessarily match on a one-to-one basis. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address: combined with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_hosting" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Virtual hosting">virtual hosting</a>, this allows a single machine to serve many web sites. Alternatively, a single hostname may correspond to many IP addresses: this can facilitate <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fault-tolerance" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Fault-tolerance">fault tolerance</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Load balancing (computing)">load distribution</a>, and also allows a site to move physical locations seamlessly.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">There are many uses of DNS besides translating names to IP addresses. For instance, <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mail_transfer_agent" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Mail transfer agent">Mail transfer agents</a> use DNS to find out where to deliver <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="E-mail">e-mail</a> for a particular address. The domain to mail exchanger mapping provided by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MX_record" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="MX record">MX records</a> accommodates another layer of fault tolerance and load distribution on top of the name to IP address mapping.</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">E-mail Blacklists: The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted e-mail hosts. The usual method is putting the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and resolve that name to different records to indicate a positive or a negative. Here is a hypothetical example blacklist:<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; list-style-type: disc; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">102.3.4.5 is blacklisted => Creates 5.4.3.102.blacklist.example and resolves to 127.0.0.1</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">102.3.4.6 is not => 6.4.3.102.blacklist.example is not found, or default to 127.0.0.2</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">E-mail servers can then query blacklist.example through the DNS mechanism to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Today many of such blacklists, either free or subscription-based, are available mainly for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.</li>
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<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sender_Policy_Framework" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Sender Policy Framework">Sender Policy Framework</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DomainKeys" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DomainKeys">DomainKeys</a>, instead of creating their own record types, were designed to take advantage of another DNS record type, the TXT record.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;">To provide resilience in the event of computer failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain, and at the top level, thirteen very powerful <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root_nameserver" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Root nameserver">root servers</a> exist, with additional "copies" of several of them distributed worldwide via <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anycast" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Anycast">Anycast</a>.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Dynamic DNS">Dynamic DNS</a> (sometimes called DDNS) allows clients to update their DNS entry as their IP address changes, as it does, for example, when moving between <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Service_Provider" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Service Provider">ISPs</a> or mobile <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotspot_(Wi-Fi)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hotspot (Wi-Fi)">hot spots</a>.</li>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Protocol details">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Protocol_details">Protocol details</span></h2>
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DNS primarily uses <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="User Datagram Protocol">User Datagram Protocol</a> (UDP) on <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_number" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Port number">port number</a> 53 to serve requests.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1035_3-4" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[3]</a></sup> DNS queries consist of a single UDP request from the client followed by a single UDP reply from the server. The <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_Control_Protocol" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Transmission Control Protocol">Transmission Control Protocol</a> (TCP) is used when the response data size exceeds 512 bytes, or for tasks such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_zone_transfer" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS zone transfer">zone transfers</a>. Some resolver implementations use TCP for all queries.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=19" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: DNS resource records">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="DNS_resource_records">DNS resource records</span></h2>
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Further information: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DNS_record_types" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="List of DNS record types">List of DNS record types</a></div>
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A Resource Record (RR) is the basic data element in the domain name system. Each record has a type (A, MX, etc.), an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_to_live#DNS_records" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Time to live">expiration time limit</a>, a class, and some type-specific data. Resource records of the same type define a resource record set (RRset). The order of resource records in a set, returned by a resolver to an application, is undefined, but often servers implement <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round-robin_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Round-robin DNS">round-robin ordering</a> to achieve <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Server_Load_Balancing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Global Server Load Balancing">Global Server Load Balancing</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNSSEC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNSSEC">DNSSEC</a>, however, works on complete resource record sets in a canonical order.</div>
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When sent over an IP network, all records use the common format specified in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1035</a>:<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[15]</a></sup></div>
<table class="wikitable" style="background-color: #f9f9f9; border-collapse: collapse; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); color: black; font-size: 13px; margin: 1em auto;"><caption style="font-weight: bold;">RR (Resource record) fields</caption><tbody>
<tr><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Field</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Description</th><th style="background-color: #f2f2f2; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em; text-align: center;">Length (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octet_(computing)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Octet (computing)">octets</a>)</th></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">NAME</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Name of the node to which this record pertains</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">(variable)</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">TYPE</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Type of RR in numeric form (e.g. 15 for MX RRs)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">CLASS</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Class code</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_to_live" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Time to live">TTL</a></td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 2<sup style="line-height: 1em;">31</sup>-1, which is about 68 years.)</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">4</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">RDLENGTH</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Length of RDATA field</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">2</td></tr>
<tr><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">RDATA</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">Additional RR-specific data</td><td style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); padding: 0.2em;">(variable)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
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<i>NAME</i> is the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fully_qualified_domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Fully qualified domain name">fully qualified domain name</a> of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name. A free standing <i>@</i> is used to denote the current origin.</div>
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<i>TYPE</i> is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the <i>A</i> record is used to translate from a domain name to an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4_address" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv4 address">IPv4 address</a>, the <i>NS</i>record lists which <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Name server">name servers</a> can answer lookups on a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_zone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS zone">DNS zone</a>, and the <i>MX</i> record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-mail_address" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="E-mail address">e-mail address</a> (see also <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DNS_record_types" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="List of DNS record types">List of DNS record types</a>).</div>
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<i>RDATA</i> is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (<a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3597" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3597</a>).</div>
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The <i>CLASS</i> of a record is set to <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">IN</tt> (for <i>Internet</i>) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaosnet" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Chaosnet">Chaos</a> (<tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">CH</tt>) and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hesiod_(name_service)" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hesiod (name service)">Hesiod</a> (<tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">HS</tt>) exist.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[16]</a></sup>Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_zone" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS zone">DNS zones</a>.</div>
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In addition to resource records defined in a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zone_file" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Zone file">zone file</a>, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (<i>on the wire</i>), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="EDNS">EDNS</a> (OPT).</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=20" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Wildcard DNS records">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Wildcard_DNS_records">Wildcard DNS records</span></h3>
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Main article: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildcard_DNS_record" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wildcard DNS record">Wildcard DNS record</a></div>
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The domain name system supports <i>wildcard domain names</i> which are names that start with the <i>asterisk label</i>, '*', e.g., <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">*.example</tt>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc1034_1-3" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc1034-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc4592_17-0" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc4592-17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup> DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the DNS zone <i>x.example</i>, the following configuration specifies that all subdomains (including subdomains of subdomains) of <i>x.example</i> use the mail exchanger <i>a.x.example</i>. The records for <i>a.x.example</i> are needed to specify the mail exchanger. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, all subdomains of<i>a.x.example</i> must be defined in a separate wildcard statement.</div>
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The role of wildcard records was refined in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4592" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4592</a>, because the original definition in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1034" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1034</a> was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-rfc4592_17-1" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-rfc4592-17" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[17]</a></sup></div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=21" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Protocol extensions">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Protocol_extensions">Protocol extensions</span></h2>
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The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2671" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2671</a> an extension mechanism, called <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extension_mechanisms_for_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Extension mechanisms for DNS">Extension mechanisms for DNS</a>(EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">OPT</tt> pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=22" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Dynamic zone updates">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Dynamic_zone_updates">Dynamic zone updates</span></h2>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Dynamic DNS">Dynamic DNS updates</a> use the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">UPDATE</tt> DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone data base maintained on an authoritative DNS server. The feature is described in<a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2136" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2136</a>. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. Since a booting client may be assigned a different IP address each time from a <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DHCP" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DHCP">DHCP</a> server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.</div>
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<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=23" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Security issues">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Security_issues">Security issues</span></h2>
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Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the requirements for security measures to protect data integrity and user authentication.</div>
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Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_cache_poisoning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS cache poisoning">DNS cache poisoning</a>, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.</div>
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DNS responses are traditionally not cryptographically signed, leading to many attack possibilities; the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System_Security_Extensions" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain Name System Security Extensions">Domain Name System Security Extensions</a> (DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses. Several extensions have been devised to secure zone transfers as well.</div>
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Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example, paypal.com and paypa1.com are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Typeface">typeface</a>. In many fonts the letter <i>l</i> and the numeral <i>1</i> look very similar or even identical. This problem is acute in systems that support <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalized_domain_name" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internationalized domain name">internationalized domain names</a>, since many character codes in <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_10646" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ISO 10646">ISO 10646</a>, may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phishing" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Phishing">phishing</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[18]</a></sup></div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Techniques such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forward-confirmed_reverse_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Forward-confirmed reverse DNS">forward-confirmed reverse DNS</a> can also be used to help validate DNS results.</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=24" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Domain name registration">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Domain_name_registration">Domain name registration</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The right to use a domain name is delegated by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name_registrar" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Domain name registrar">domain name registrars</a> which are accredited by the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Corporation_for_Assigned_Names_and_Numbers" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers">Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers</a> (ICANN), the organization charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. A registry is responsible for maintaining the database of names registered within the TLD it administers. The registry receives registration information from each domain name registrar authorized to assign names in the corresponding TLD and publishes the information using a special service, the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whois" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Whois">whois</a> protocol.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICANN" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ICANN">ICANN</a> publishes the complete list of TLD registries and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHOIS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WHOIS">WHOIS</a> service. For most of the more than 240 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_code_top-level_domain" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Country code top-level domain">country code top-level domains</a> (ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DENIC" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DENIC">DENIC</a>, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. Since about 2001, most <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GTLD" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="GTLD">gTLD</a> registries have adopted this so-called <i>thick</i> registry approach, i.e. keeping the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHOIS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WHOIS">WHOIS</a> data in central registries instead of registrar databases.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
For <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">COM</tt> and <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">NET</tt> domain names, a <i>thin</i> registry model is used: the domain registry (e.g. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VeriSign" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="VeriSign">VeriSign</a>) holds basic WHOIS (registrar and name servers, etc.) data. One can find the detailed <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WHOIS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WHOIS">WHOIS</a>(registrant, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Name_server" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Name server">name servers</a>, expiry dates, etc.) at the registrars.</div>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
Some domain name registries, often called <i>network information centers</i> (NIC), also function as registrars to end-users. The major generic top-level domain registries, such as for the <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">COM</tt>, <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">NET</tt>,<tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">ORG</tt>, <tt style="font-family: monospace, Courier;">INFO</tt> domains, use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-19" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[19]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20" style="line-height: 1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_note-20" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">[20]</a></sup> In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The <i>registrants</i> (users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional layers of resellers.</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=25" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Internet standards">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Internet_standards">Internet standards</span></h2>
<div style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; margin-top: 0.4em;">
The Domain Name System is defined by <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Request for Comments">Request for Comments</a> (RFC) documents published by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Engineering Task Force">Internet Engineering Task Force</a> (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_standard" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet standard">Internet standards</a>). The following is a list of RFCs that define the DNS protocol.</div>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc920" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 920</a>, <i>Domain Requirements</i> – Specified original top-level domains</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1032" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1032</a>, <i>Domain Administrators Guide</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1033" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1033</a>, <i>Domain Administrators Operations Guide</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1034" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1034</a>, <i>Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1035</a>, <i>Domain Names - Implementation and Specification</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1101" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1101</a>, <i>DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1123" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1123</a>, <i>Requirements for Internet Hosts—Application and Support</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1178" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1178</a>, <i>Choosing a Name for Your Computer</i> (FYI 5)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1183" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1183</a>, <i>New DNS RR Definitions</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1591" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1591</a>, <i>Domain Name System Structure and Delegation</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1912" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1912</a>, <i>Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1995" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1995</a>, <i>Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1996" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1996</a>, <i>A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2100" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2100</a>, <i>The Naming of Hosts</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2136" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2136</a>, <i>Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2181" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2181</a>, <i>Clarifications to the DNS Specification</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2182" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2182</a>, <i>Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2308" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2308</a>, <i>Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2317" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2317</a>, <i>Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation</i> (BCP 20)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2671" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2671</a>, <i>Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2672" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2672</a>, <i>Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2845" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2845</a>, <i>Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3225" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3225</a>, <i>Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3226" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3226</a>, <i>DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3597" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3597</a>, <i>Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3696" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3696</a>, <i>Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4343" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4343</a>, <i>Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4592" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4592</a>, <i>The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4635" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4635</a>, <i>HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4892" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4892</a>, <i>Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a Name Server Instance</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5001" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5001</a>, <i>DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5452" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5452</a>, <i>Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5625" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5625</a>, <i>DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines</i> (BCP 152)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5890" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5890</a>, <i>Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5891" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5891</a>, <i>Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5892" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5892</a>, <i>The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5893" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5893</a>, <i>Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5894" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5894</a>, <i>Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5895" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5895</a>, <i>Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008</i> (Informational)</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5966" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5966</a>, <i>DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6195" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 6195</a>, <i>Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations</i> (BCP 42)</li>
</ul>
<h3 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-style: none; font-size: 17px; margin: 0px 0px 0.3em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=26" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: Security">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="Security">Security</span></h3>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4033" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4033</a>, <i>DNS Security Introduction and Requirements</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4034" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4034</a>, <i>Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4035</a>, <i>Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4509" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4509</a>, <i>Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4470" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4470</a>, <i>Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5011" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5011</a>, <i>Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5155" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5155</a>, <i>DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial of Existence</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5702" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5702</a>, <i>Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5910" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5910</a>, <i>Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)</i></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5933" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5933</a>, <i>Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC</i></li>
</ul>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=27" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2>
<div class="noprint tright portal" style="border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: right; float: right; margin: 0.5em 0px 0.5em 1em;">
<table style="background-color: #f9f9f9; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; font-size: 11px; line-height: 12px; max-width: 175px;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Internet_map_1024.jpg" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><img alt="Portal icon" height="28" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/28px-Internet_map_1024.jpg" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/42px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Internet_map_1024.jpg/56px-Internet_map_1024.jpg 2x" style="border: none; vertical-align: middle;" width="28" /></a></td><td style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; padding: 0px 0.2em; vertical-align: middle;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_Science" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Portal:Computer Science">Computer Science portal</a></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
</div>
<div class="column-count column-count-2" style="-webkit-column-count: 2;">
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_DNS_root" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Alternative DNS root">Alternative DNS root</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_DNS_server_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Comparison of DNS server software">Comparison of DNS server software</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_cache_poisoning" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS cache poisoning">DNS cache poisoning</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_hijacking" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS hijacking">DNS hijacking</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_management_software" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DNS management software">DNS management software</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Dynamic DNS">Dynamic DNS</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Provider_Security" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Provider Security">Internet Provider Security</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6_brokenness_and_DNS_whitelisting" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting">IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_DNS_record_types" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="List of DNS record types">List of DNS record types</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Microsoft DNS">Microsoft DNS</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Round_robin_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Round robin DNS">Round robin DNS</a></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Split-horizon_DNS" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Split-horizon DNS">Split-horizon DNS</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=28" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2>
<div class="reflist" style="font-size: 12px; list-style-type: decimal; margin-bottom: 0.5em;">
<ol class="references" style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: none; list-style-type: inherit; margin: 0.3em 0px 0.5em 3.2em; padding: 0px;">
<li id="cite_note-rfc1034-1" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1034_1-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1034_1-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1034_1-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1034_1-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1034" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1034</a>, <i>Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities</i>, P. Mockapetris, The Internet Society (November 1987)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rfc781-2" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc781_2-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc781" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 781</a>, <i>Internet Protocol - DARPA Internet Program Protocol Specification</i>, Information Sciences Institute, J. Postel (Ed.), The Internet Society (September 1981)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rfc1035-3" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1035_3-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1035_3-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1035_3-2" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1035_3-3" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc1035_3-4" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1035" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 1035</a>, <i>Domain Names - Implementation and Specification</i>, P. Mockapetris, The Internet Society (November 1987)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rfc2467-4" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc2467_4-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3467" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3467</a>, <i>Role of the Domain Name System (DNS)</i>, J.C. Klensin, J. Klensin (February 2003)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-5" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-5" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cricket Liu, Paul Albitz (2006). <a class="external text" href="http://oreilly.com/catalog/9780596100575" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;"><i>DNS and BIND</i></a> (5th ed.). <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Reilly_Media" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="O'Reilly Media">O'Reilly</a>. p. 3.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-6" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-6" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Douglas Brian Terry, Mark Painter, David W. Riggle and Songnian Zhou, <a class="external text" href="http://www.eecs.berkeley.edu/Pubs/TechRpts/1984/5957.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;"><i>The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server</i></a>, Proceedings USENIX Summer Conference, Salt Lake City, Utah, June 1984, pages 23–31.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-7" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-7" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://mydns.bboy.net/survey/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">"DNS Server Survey"</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-8" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-8" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc2181" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 2181</a>, <i>Clarifications to the DNS Specification</i>, R. Elz, R. Bush (July 1997)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-9" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-9" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Network Working Group of the IETF, January 2006, <a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4343" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4343</a>: Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rfc3696-10" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc3696_10-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3696" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 3696</a>, <i>Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names</i>, J.C. Klensin, J. Klensin</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-techterms-11" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-techterms_11-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.techterms.com/definition/nameserver" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">"Name Server definition at techterms.com"</a>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-12" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-12" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://ask.slashdot.org/story/05/04/18/198259/providers-ignoring-dns-ttl" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">"Providers ignoring DNS TTL?"</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slashdot" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Slashdot">Slashdot</a>. 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2012-04-07</span>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-13" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-13" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://dyn.com/web-browser-dns-caching-bad-thing/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">Ben Anderson: Why Web Browser DNS Caching Can Be A Bad Thing</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-14" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-14" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://support.microsoft.com/default.aspx?scid=KB;en-us;263558" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">"How Internet Explorer uses the cache for DNS host entries"</a>. <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Corporation" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Microsoft Corporation">Microsoft Corporation</a>. 2004<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 2010-07-25</span>.</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-15" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-15" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5395" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5395</a>, <i>Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations</i>, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), Section 3</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-16" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-16" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5395" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 5395</a>, <i>Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations</i>, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), p. 11</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-rfc4592-17" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc4592_17-0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-rfc4592_17-1" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;"><sup style="line-height: 1em;"><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external mw-magiclink-rfc" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4592" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">RFC 4592</a>, <i>The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System</i>, E. Lewis (July 2006)</span></li>
<li id="cite_note-18" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-18" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">APWG. "Global Phishing Survey: Domain Name Use and Trends in 1H2010." <a class="external text" href="http://www.apwg.org/reports/APWG_GlobalPhishingSurvey_1H2010.pdf." rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">10/15/2010 apwg.org</a></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-19" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-19" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.icann.org/registrars/accredited-list.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">ICANN accredited registrars</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="line-height: 1em;"><span style="white-space: nowrap;" title=" since July 2012">[<i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">dead link</a></i>]</span></sup></span></li>
<li id="cite_note-20" style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#cite_ref-20" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external text" href="http://www.verisign.com/information-services/naming-services/com-net-registry/page_002166.html" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">VeriSign COM and NET registry</a></span></li>
</ol>
</div>
<h2 style="background-image: none; border-bottom-color: rgb(170, 170, 170); border-bottom-style: solid; border-bottom-width: 1px; font-size: 19px; font-weight: normal; margin: 0px 0px 0.6em; overflow: hidden; padding-bottom: 0.17em; padding-top: 0.5em;">
<span class="editsection" style="-webkit-user-select: none; float: right; font-size: 13px; margin-left: 5px;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Domain_Name_System&action=edit&section=29" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</span><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2>
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0.3em 0px 0px 1.6em; padding: 0px;">
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><span class="citation web" style="word-wrap: break-word;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Vixie" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Paul Vixie">Vixie, Paul</a> (2007-05-04). <a class="external text" href="http://www.acmqueue.com/modules.php?name=Content&pa=showpage&pid=481" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">"DNS Complexity – Although it contains just a few simple rules, DNS has grown into an enormously complex system."</a>. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_Queue" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ACM Queue">ACM Queue</a>.</span></li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.zytrax.com/books/dns/" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">Zytrax.com</a>, Open Source Guide – DNS for Rocket Scientists, an on-line technical.</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.zonefile.org/?lang=en" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">Create a zone file</a> on zonefile.org</li>
<li style="margin-bottom: 0.1em;"><a class="external text" href="http://www.microsoft.com/dns" rel="nofollow" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 100% 50%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-right: 13px; text-decoration: initial;">Domain Name System</a> on Microsoft TechNet</li>
</ul>
<table cellspacing="0" class="navbox" style="background-color: #fdfdfd; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border-spacing: 0px; border: 1px solid rgb(170, 170, 170); clear: both; font-size: 11px; margin: 0.5em auto auto; padding: 1px; text-align: center; width: 1121px;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="padding: 2px;"><table cellspacing="0" class="nowraplinks collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" id="collapsibleTable0" style="background-color: transparent; border-spacing: 0px; font-size: 11px; width: 1117px;"><tbody>
<tr><th class="navbox-title" colspan="2" scope="col" style="background-color: #ccccff; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 1.5em; padding: 0.25em 1em; text-align: center;"><span class="collapseButton" style="float: right; font-weight: normal; margin-left: 0.5em; text-align: right; width: 6em;">[<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System#" id="collapseButton0" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;">hide</a>]</span><div class="noprint plainlinks hlist navbar mini" style="float: left; font-weight: normal; margin-right: 0.5em; text-align: left; width: 6em;">
<ul style="display: inline; line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0px; white-space: nowrap;">
<li class="nv-view" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:URI_scheme" style="background-image: none !important; color: #0b0080; padding: 0px !important; text-decoration: initial;" title="Template:URI scheme"><span style="background-color: transparent; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; font-variant: small-caps;" title="View this template">v</span></a></li>
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<li class="nv-edit" style="display: inline; margin: 0px; word-spacing: -0.125em;"><a class="external text" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:URI_scheme&action=edit" style="background-image: url(data:image/png; background-position: 0% 0%; background-repeat: no-repeat no-repeat; color: #663366; padding-bottom: 0px !important; padding-left: 0px !important; padding-right: 13px; padding-top: 0px !important; text-decoration: initial;"><span style="background-color: transparent; background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; border: none; font-variant: small-caps;" title="Edit this template">e</span></a></li>
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<div class="" style="font-size: 12px;">
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial; white-space: nowrap;" title="URI scheme">URI scheme</a></div>
</th></tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;"><td></td></tr>
<tr><th class="navbox-group" scope="row" style="background-color: #ddddff; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 1.5em; padding: 0.25em 1em; text-align: right; white-space: nowrap;">Official</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="background-color: transparent; border-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; line-height: 1.8em; padding: 0px; width: 1043px;"><div style="padding: 0em 0.25em;">
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0.125em 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAA_protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="AAA protocol">aaa</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAA_protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="AAA protocol">aaas</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/About_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="About URI scheme">about</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Application_Configuration_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Application Configuration Access Protocol">acap</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="extiw" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc4324" style="background-image: none; color: #663366; text-decoration: initial;" title="rfc:4324">cap</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="MIME">cid</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_Reference_Identifier" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Content Reference Identifier">crid</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Data URI scheme">data</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebDAV" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WebDAV">dav</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DICT" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="DICT">dict</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><strong class="selflink">dns</strong></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Fax">fax</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="File URI scheme">file</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="File Transfer Protocol">ftp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geo_URI" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Geo URI">geo</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="extiw" href="http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc3368" style="background-image: none; color: #663366; text-decoration: initial;" title="rfc:3368">go</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopher_(protocol)" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Gopher (protocol)">gopher</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H.323" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="H.323">h323</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hypertext Transfer Protocol">http</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Secure" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="HTTP Secure">https</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-Asterisk_eXchange" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Inter-Asterisk eXchange">iax</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant_messaging" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Instant messaging">im</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Message_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Message Access Protocol">imap</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Info_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Info URI scheme">info</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Lightweight Directory Access Protocol">ldap</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailto" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Mailto">mailto</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIME" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="MIME">mid</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Usenet">news</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_File_System" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Network File System">nfs</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_News_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Network News Transfer Protocol">nntp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_Office_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Post Office Protocol">pop</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rsync" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Rsync">rsync</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presence_information" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Presence information">pres</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Time_Streaming_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Real Time Streaming Protocol">rtsp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Session_Initiation_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Session Initiation Protocol">sip</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sips_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Sips URI scheme">sips</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Network_Management_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Simple Network Management Protocol">snmp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_URI" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Tag URI">tag</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plain_old_telephone_service" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Plain old telephone service">tel</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telnet" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Telnet">telnet</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trivial_File_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Trivial File Transfer Protocol">tftp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_name" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Uniform resource name">urn</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View-source_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="View-source URI scheme">view-source</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_information_server" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Wide area information server">wais</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebSocket" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WebSocket">ws</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebSocket" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WebSocket">wss</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensible_Messaging_and_Presence_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol">xmpp</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 2px;"><td></td></tr>
<tr><th class="navbox-group" scope="row" style="background-color: #ddddff; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; line-height: 1.5em; padding: 0.25em 1em; text-align: right; white-space: nowrap;">Unofficial</th><td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="background-color: #f7f7f7; border-color: rgb(253, 253, 253); border-left-style: solid; border-left-width: 2px; line-height: 1.8em; padding: 0px; width: 1043px;"><div style="padding: 0em 0.25em;">
<ul style="line-height: 1.5em; list-style-image: url(data:image/png; margin: 0px; padding: 0.125em 0px;">
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Filing_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Apple Filing Protocol">afp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AOL_Instant_Messenger" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="AOL Instant Messenger">aim</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Packaging_Tool" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Advanced Packaging Tool">apt</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolo_(1987_video_game)" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Bolo (1987 video game)">bolo</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bazaar_(software)" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Bazaar (software)">bzr</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Skype">callto</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper_Text_Coffee_Pot_Control_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Hyper Text Coffee Pot Control Protocol">coffee</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrent_Versions_System" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Concurrent Versions System">cvs</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Audio_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Digital Audio Access Protocol">daap</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Social_Networking_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Distributed Social Networking Protocol">dsnp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed2k_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Ed2k URI scheme">ed2k</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Feed URI scheme">feed</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Files_transferred_over_shell_protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Files transferred over shell protocol">fish</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadu-Gadu" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Gadu-Gadu">gg</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Git_(software)" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Git (software)">git</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gizmo5" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Gizmo5">gizmoproject</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Relay Chat">irc</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Internet Relay Chat">ircs</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITunes_Store" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="ITunes Store">itms</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JavaScript" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="JavaScript">javascript</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lightweight_Directory_Access_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Lightweight Directory Access Protocol">ldaps</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnet_URI_scheme" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Magnet URI scheme">magnet</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Media_Server" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Microsoft Media Server">mms</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Live_Messenger" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Windows Live Messenger">msnim</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postal_2" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Postal 2">postal2</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Life" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Second Life">secondlife</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skype" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Skype">skype</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spotify" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Spotify">spotify</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secure_Shell" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Secure Shell">ssh</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Subversion" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Apache Subversion">svn</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSH_File_Transfer_Protocol" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="SSH File Transfer Protocol">sftp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_Message_Block" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Server Message Block">smb</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="SMS">sms</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_(software)" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Steam (software)">steam</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Webcal" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Webcal">webcal</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winamp" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Winamp">winamp</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WYCIWYG" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="WYCIWYG">wyciwyg</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xfire" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Xfire">xfire</a></li>
<li style="display: inline; margin: 0px; white-space: nowrap;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo!_Messenger" style="background-image: none; color: #0b0080; text-decoration: initial;" title="Yahoo! Messenger">ymsgr</a></li>
</ul>
</div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-56065840218452444682013-01-21T04:14:00.002-08:002013-01-21T04:14:45.395-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
<h1 style="background-color: white; border-bottom-color: rgb(169, 169, 169); border-bottom-style: dotted; border-bottom-width: 1px; color: #843794; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 18px; line-height: 20px; margin: 0px 0px 0.5em; padding-bottom: 15px;">
Alamat IP</h1>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 17px;">
Bila browser atau aplikasi email Anda meminta halaman web atau email dari komputer lain di Internet, browser atau aplikasi tersebut secara otomatis akan memberikan informasi alamat komputer Anda kepada komputer lain itu. Ini dinamakan "Alamat IP" komputer Anda. (IP adalah singkatan "Internet protocol.") Untuk sebagian besar pengguna yang mengakses Internet dari penyedia layanan Internet (ISP) dial-up, alamat IP ini akan berbeda setiap kali Anda log on.</div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: arial, helvetica, clean, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; line-height: 17px;">
<span style="font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.5;">Praktik Pengumpulan dan Penggunaan Informasi</span></div>
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<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Yahoo! ("kami") menerima alamat IP dari semua pengguna karena informasi ini secara otomatis dilaporkan oleh browser Anda setiap kali Anda menampilkan suatu halaman web.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Alamat IP Anda juga akan disimpan pada basis data pendaftaran pengguna ketika Anda mendaftar pada kami.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Alamat IP dapat digunakan untuk berbagai tujuan, termasuk untuk:</li>
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<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Mendiagnosis masalah layanan atau teknologi yang dilaporkan oleh para pengguna atau teknisi yang terkait dengan alamat IP yang dikendalikan oleh suatu perusahaan web atau ISP tertentu.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Mengirimkan iklan yang paling sesuai berdasarkan daerah geografi atau informasi yang diperoleh dari alamat IP Anda. Banyak alamat IP yang umumnya terkait dengan penyedia layanan Internet, universitas, atau perusahaan besar di wilayah atau daerah tertentu. Kumpulan informasi yang diperoleh dari alamat IP dapat juga dilaporkan kepada para pemasang iklan.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Memperkirakan jumlah total pengguna yang mengunjungi Yahoo! dari negara atau wilayah tertentu di seluruh dunia.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Membantu menentukan pengguna mana yang memiliki hak khusus untuk mengakses materi tertentu yang kami sediakan.</li>
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<span style="font-weight: bold; line-height: 1.5;">Lainnya</span></div>
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<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;">Bila suatu halaman Yahoo! diminta dan ditampilkan, permintaan tersebut dicatat (log on) pada server kami bersama informasi yang mencakup alamat IP komputer yang meminta halaman tersebut.</li>
<li style="line-height: 1.5em; margin-bottom: 10px;"><a class="bb-url" href="http://info.yahoo.com/privacy/id/yahoo/mail/" style="color: #16387c; line-height: 17px;">Surat Yahoo!</a> mencakup alamat IP dalam header pesan keluar, sebagaimana ditentukan oleh protokol Internet standar.</li>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-57143812963377114952013-01-21T03:49:00.004-08:002013-01-21T03:49:43.746-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="background-color: white;">Menginstall software Jaringan dan mengoperasikannya</span></h3>
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<span style="background-color: white;">A. installasi dan konfigurasi LAN pada sistem operasi windows<br /><br /> Walaupun secara fisik hardware telah dipasang (komputer dan NIC, pengkabelan, konektor, dan HUB, dll), tapi jaringan komputer belum dapat difungsikan. Karena setiap device yang dipasang butuh driver yang harus diinstal dan perlu dikonfigurasikan terlebih dahulu. Dalam modul ini akan dibahas instalasi dan konfigurasi jaringan dengan sistem operasi windows.<br />Selanjutnya akan dilakukan pengujian apakah komputer telah terhubung dengan benar, dan bisa berhubungan dengan jaringan lokal (LAN).<br />1) Mengidentifikasi komputer di dalam jaringan<br />Komputer dengan sistem operasi Windows 98 di dalam jaringan komputer harus menggunakan nama yang unik untuk menghindari adanya tumpang-tindih dengan komputer lain. Untuk memberikan nama dapat mengikuti langkah-langkah berikut :<br />a) Pilih Start, Settings, dan Control Panel.<br />b) Double-klik ikon Network dan klik tab Identification.<br />c) Masukkan nama komputer, workgroup dan deskripsi komputer untuk komputer yang akan digunakan.<br />d) Klik OK.<br />2) Menginstal dan Mengkonfigurasi Network Interface Card<br />Network Interface card (NIC) harus dipasang di dalam komputer, agar komputer dapat “berinteraksi” dengan jaringan. Windows 98 mendukung beberapa tipe network, yaitu :<br />a) Ethernet,<br />b) Token Ring,<br />c) Attached Resource Computer Network (ARCNet),<br />d) Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI),<br />e) Wireless, infrared,<br />f) Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).<br />Setelah NIC dipasang dalam slot komputer secara benar selanjutnya driver jaringan harus diinstal. Untuk meninstal dan mengkonfigurasi driver dapat dilakukan sebagai berikut :<br />a) Control Panel, double-klik icon Network.<br />b) Pilih tab Configuration, klik Add.<br />c) Setelah itu muncul kotak dialog Select Network Component Type, klik Adapter, lalu klik Add.<br />d) Pilih jenis adapter yang digunakan, setelah itu klik OK.<br />e) Klik OK untuk menutup kotak dialog Network Properties.<br />Setelah meng-copy file driver yang dibutuhkan untuk mengenali kartu jaringan, Windows 98 akan me-restart komputer.<br />f) Setelah komputer di-restart, konfigurasi kartu jaringan dari Control Panel dan double-klik icon Network.<br />g) Pilih Adapter, lalu klik Properties.<br />3) Menginstall Protokol Jaringan<br />Untuk dapat “berkomunikasi” dalam jaringan komputer, komputer harus mempunyai protokol. Prosedur yang dapat dilakukan untuk menginstall protokol jaringan adalah :<br />a) Buka Control Panel dan double-klik icon Network.<br />b) Dalam tab Configurasi klik Add.<br />c) Pada kotak dialog Select Network Component Type, pilih Protocol dan klik Add.<br />d) Pilih Manufacturer dan Network Protocol dan klik OK.<br />Windows98 menyediakan multiple-protokol di dalam satu komputer meliputi :<br />• NetBIOS Enhanced User Interface (NetBEUI) protokol sederhana yang dapat digunakan untuk hubungan LAN sederhana dengan hanya satu subnet yang bekerja berdasarkan penyiaran.<br />• Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange (IPX/SPX) protokol yang digunakan dalam lingkungan Novell NetWare. IPX/SPX tidak direkomendasikan untuk penggunan non-NetWare, karena IPX/SPX tidak universal seperti TCP/IP.<br />• Microsoft Data-link Control(DLC) dibuat oleh IBM digunakan untuk IBM mainframe.<br />• Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protokol (TCP/IP) protokol standar yang umum.<br />• Fast Infrared Protocol digunakan secara wireless (tanpa kabel), protokol yang mendukung penggunaan hubungan jarak dekat dengan menggunakan infrared. IrDA (infrared Data Association) digunakan antara lain oleh komputer, kamera, printer, dan personal digita assistant (PDA) untuk saling berkomunikasi.<br />• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) teknologi jaringan high-speed yang mampu mengirim data, suara, dan video secara real-time.<br /><br />4) Konfigurasi TCP/IP<br />Implementasi TCP/IP pada Windows 98 meliputi:<br />a) Internet Protocol (IP),<br />b) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),<br />c) Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP),<br />d) Address Resolusion Protocol (ARP),<br />e) User Datagram Protocol (UDP).<br />TCP/IP harus dikonfigurasikan terlebih dahulu agar bisa “berkomunikasi” di dalam jaringan komputer. Setiap kartu jaringan (NIC) yang telah diinstall memerlukan IP address dan subnet mask. IP address harus unik (berbeda dengan komputer lain), subnet mask digunakan untuk membedakan network ID dari host ID.<br /><br />5) Memberikan IP Address<br />IP address dan subnet mask dapat diberikan secara otomatis menggunakan Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) atau diisi secara manual.<br />Prosedur yang dilakukan untuk mengisikan IP address :<br />a) Buka Control Panel dan double-klik icon Network.<br />b) Di dalam tab Configuration, klik TCP/IP yang ada dalam daftar untuk kartu jaringan yang telah diinstall.<br />c) Klik Properties.<br />d) Di dalam tab IP Address, terdapat 2 pilihan:<br />• Obtain an IP address automatically<br />IP address akan diperoleh melalui fasilitas DHCP. DHCP berfungsi untuk memberikan IP address secara otomatis pada komputer yang menggunakan protokol TCP/IP. DHCP bekerja dengan relasi client-server, dimana DHCP server menyediakan suatu kelompok IP address yang dapat diberikan pada DHCP client. Dalam memberikan IP address ini, DHCP hanya meminjamkan IP address tersebut. Jadi pemberian IP address ini berlangsung secara dinamis.<br />• Specify an IP address<br />IP address dan subnet mask diisi secara manual.<br />e) Klik OK.<br />f) Jika diperlukan masuk kembali ke dalam kotak dialog TCP/IP Properties, klik tab Gateway, masukkan nomor alamat server.<br />g) Klik OK.<br />h) Jika diperlukan untuk mengaktifkan Windows Internet Naming Service (WINS) server, kembali ke dalam kotak dialog TCP/IP Properties, klik tab WINS Configuration, dan klik Enable WINS Resolution serta masukan nomor alamat server.<br />i) Jika diperlukan untuk mengaktifkan domain name system (DNS), kembali ke dalam kotak dialog TCP/IP Properties, klik tab DNS Configuration, klik Enable DNS, masukkan nomor alamat server.<br />j) Klik OK.<br /><br />6) Menguji/Test Jaringan<br />Setelah proses instalasi dan konfigurasi sistem jaringan (baik hardware maupun software) selesai, maka perlu dilakukan test/uji. Hal ini dimaksudkan untuk melihat apakah instalasi (mulai dari memasang kabel sampai dengan konfigurasi sistem secara software) telah dilakukan dengan benar.<br />Untuk mengetest TCP/IP, salah satu caranya dapat dilakukan dengan instruksi ipconfig yang dijalankan under DOS.<br />Perintah IPConfig digunakan untuk melihat indikasi pada konfigurasi IP yang terpasang pada Komputer kita. dari gambar diatas kita dapat melihat beberapa informasi penting setelah kita menjalankan perintah IPConfig pada jendela command prompt di komputer kita, misalnya adalah kita bisa melihat Host Name, primary DNS jaringan, physical Address dan sebagainya. Harus diingat bahwa perintah ini dapat dijalankan dengan baik apabila telah terpasang Network Card di komputer anda. Ipconfig menampilkan informasi berdasarkan Network Card yang terpasang.<br />Untuk mendeteksi apakah hubungan komputer dengan jaringan sudah berjalan dengan baik, utilitas ping dapat digunakan.<br />Utilitas ping digunakan untuk mengecek apakah jaringan kita sudah bisa berfungsi dan terhubung dengan baik, misalkan pada gambar diatas terlihat perintah ping LocalHost, jika kita melihat ada keluar pesan Replay form No IP ( 127.0.0.1 ) besarnya berapa bites dan waktunya berapa detik itu menandakan bahwa perintah untuk menghubungkan ke LocalHost dapat berjalan dan diterima dengan baik, namun seandainya jika kita melakukan ping untuk nomor IP yang tidak dikenal seperti gambar 20 diatas maka akan dikeluarkan pesan Request Time Out yang berarti nomor IP tidak dikenal dalam jaringan tersebut ( ping 192.168.0.90 ). Untuk lebih jelasnya perhatikan contoh berikut :<br />Misalkan anda telah men-setup 2 buah terminal dengan alamat IP 202.159.0.1 dan 202.159.0.2, anda dapat melakukan test ping di mode dos dengan mengetik "PING 202.159.0.2" dari terminal dengan IP address 202.159.0.1 dan anda akan mendapatkan respon seperti :<br />Pinging 202.159.0.2 with 32 bytes of data:<br />Reply from 202.159.0.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=32<br />Reply from 202.159.0.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=32<br />Reply from 202.159.0.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=32<br />Reply from 202.159.0.2: bytes=32 time<10ms TTL=32<br />Jika anda mendapatkan respon seperti diatas, maka koneksi jaringan sudah benar. Respon lain selain contoh diatas diartikan bahwa jaringan anda belum bekerja dengan benar. Kesalahan dapat saja terjadi di sistem pengkabelan, kartu jaringan, atau setup network.<br />Catatan : TTL adalah Time To Live, yaitu batasan waktu agar paket data tersebut tidak mengambang dijaringan.</span></div>
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<span style="background-color: white; line-height: 18px;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Tahoma, Helvetica, FreeSans, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">http://blogtkj-a.blogspot.com/2012/09/menginstall-software-jaringan-dan.html</span></span></div>
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Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-72619681222969949642013-01-17T18:36:00.002-08:002013-01-17T18:36:28.382-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<u><b>Jenis-Jenis Topologi Jaringan Komputer</b></u> - Jaringan komputer yaitu suatu jenis jaringan yang saling berkaitan atau suatu jaringan yang saling berhubungan antara jaringan komputer yang satu dengan yang lainnya yang dapat melakukan pertukaran informasi maupun pertukaran data. Jaringan tersebut dinamakan <b>topologi jaringan</b>. Nantinya akan saya bahas satu persatu tentang macam-macam topologi jaringan. Namanya juga jaringan, pasti tidak akan sempurna, ada kelebihan dan kekurangan pada topologi jaringan tersebut. Berikut jenis-jenis topologi jarinngan komputer :</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"><i>Macam-macam topologi jaringan komputer</i></b><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">1. Topologi Bus</b><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/2012/07/jenis-jenis-topologi-jaringan-komputer.html" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" title="topologi bus"><img alt="jaringan topologi bus" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0VBmtGqiuwc/UA6439FmJEI/AAAAAAAACyQ/96Dl9yQkbdU/s1600/Topologi-Bus.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
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<b>Gambar 1 : Prinsip Kerja Topologi Bus</b></div>
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Topologi bus ini sering juga disebut sebagai topologi backbone, dimana ada sebuah kabel coaxial yang dibentangkan kemudian beberapa komputer dihubungkan pada kabel tersebut.</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kelebihan topologi Bus</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Layout kabel sederhana sehingga instalasi relatif lebih mudah</li>
<li>Kerusakan satu komputer client tidak akan mempengaruhi komunikasi antar client lainnya</li>
<li>Hemat kabel sehingga biaya instalasi relatif lebih murah</li>
<li>Penambahan dan pengurangan terminal dapat dilakukan tanpa mengganggu operasi yang berjalan.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kekurangan topologi Bus</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Jika kabel utama (bus) atau backbone putus maka komunikasi gagal</li>
<li>Bila kabel utama sangat panjang maka pencarian gangguan menjadi sulit</li>
<li>Kemungkinan akan terjadi tabrakan data(data collision) apabila banyak client yang mengirim pesan dan ini akan menurunkan kecepatan komunikasi.</li>
<li>Keamanan data kurang terjamin</li>
<li>Diperlukan repeater untuk jarak jauh</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">2. Topologi Ring</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/2012/07/jenis-jenis-topologi-jaringan-komputer.html" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" title="topologi ring"><img alt="jaringan topologi ring" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-amDUXhMzsUU/UA66B-qwMFI/AAAAAAAACyc/1i2DQsaCd7w/s1600/Topologi-Ring.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
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<b>Gambar 2 : Prinsip Kerja Topologi Ring</b></div>
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Disebut topologi ring karena bentuknya seperti cincing yang melingkar. Semua komputer dalam jaringan akan di hubungkan pada sebuah cincin. Cincin ini hampir sama fungsinya dengan concenrator pada topologi star yang menjadi pusat berkumpulnya ujung kabel dari setiap komputer yang terhubung.</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kelebihan topologi ring</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Dapat melayani aliran lalulintas data yang padat</li>
<li>Aliran data mengalir lebih cepat karena dapat melayani data dari kiri atau kanandari server</li>
<li>Trasmisi data yang relatif sederhana seperti perjalanan paket data dalam satu arah saja.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kekurangan topologi ring</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Kerusakan pada salah satu media pengirim/terminal dapat melumpuhkan kerja seluruh jaringan</li>
<li>Paket data harus melewati setiap komputer antara pengirim dan penerima, sehingga menjadi lebih lambat</li>
<li>Pengembangan jaringan menjadi lebih kaku karena penambahan terminal atau node menjadi lebih sulit bila port sudah habis.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">3. Topologi Star</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/2012/07/jenis-jenis-topologi-jaringan-komputer.html" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" title="topologi star"><img alt="jaringan topologi star" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-OFcrxf5SPHU/UA67JMiIm2I/AAAAAAAACyo/BQhWreuJXVw/s1600/Topologi-Star.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<b>Gambar 3 : Prinsip Kerja Topologi Star</b></div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
Disebut topologi star karena bentuknya seperti bintang, sebuah alat yang disebut concentrator bisa berupa hub atau switch menjadi pusat, dimana semua komputer dalam jaringan dihubungkan ke concentrator ini.</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kelebihan topologi star</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> : </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Karena setiap komponen dihubungkan langsung ke simpul pusat maka pengelolaan menjadi mudah</li>
<li>Kegagalan komunikasi mudah ditelusuri.</li>
<li>Kegagalan pada satu komponen/terminal tidak mempengaruhi komunikasi terminal lain.</li>
<li>Kontrol terpusat sehingga memudahkan dalam deteksi dan isolasi kesalahan serta memudahkan pengelolaan jaringan.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kekurangan topologi star</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Kegagalan pusat kontrol (simpul pusat) memutuskan semua komunikasi</li>
<li>Bila yang digunakan sebagai pusat kontrol adalah HUB maka kecepatan akan berkurang sesuai dengan penambahan komputer, semakin banyak semakin lambat.</li>
<li>Boros dalam penggunaan kabel</li>
<li>Kondisi HUB harus tetap dalam kondisi baik, kerusakan HUB berakibat lumpuhnya seluruh link dalam jaringan sehingga computer tidak dapat saling berkomunikasi.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">4. Topologi Tree</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/2012/07/jenis-jenis-topologi-jaringan-komputer.html" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" title="topologi tree"><img alt="jaringan topologi tree" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UgNxedjrOWg/UA67_1a9d0I/AAAAAAAACy0/YefiUTchgSs/s1600/Topologi-Tree.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<b>Gambar 4 : Prinsip Kerja Topologi Tree</b></div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
Topologi pohon adalah pengembangan atau generalisasi topologi bus. Media transmisi merupakan satu kabel yang bercabang namun loop tidak tertutup.</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kelebihan topologi tree</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> : </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Memungkinkan untuk memiliki jaringan point to point</li>
<li>Mengatasi keterbatasan pada topologi star, yang memiliki keterbatasan pada titik koneksi hub.</li>
<li>Topologi tree membagi seluruh jaringan menjadi bagian yang lebih mudah diatur</li>
<li>Topologi tree ini memiliki keunggulan lebih mampu menjangkau jarak yang lebih jauh dengan mengaktifkan fungsi Repeater yang dimiliki oleh HUB.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kekurangan topologi tree</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Karena bercabang maka diperlukan cara untuk menunjukkan kemana data dikirim, atau kepada siapa transmisi data ditujukan.</li>
<li>Perlu suatu mekanisme untuk mengatur transmisi dari terminal terminal dalam jaringan.</li>
<li>Kabel yang digunakan menjadi lebih banyak sehingga diperlukan perencanaan yang matang dalam pengaturannya, termasuk di dalamnya adalah tata letak ruangan.</li>
<li>HUB menjadi elemen kritis.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">5. Topologi Mesh</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> </span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div class="separator" style="background-color: white; clear: both; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/2012/07/jenis-jenis-topologi-jaringan-komputer.html" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" title="topologi mesh"><img alt="jaringan topologi mesh" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VMP2crCRNzA/UA6-S99G9fI/AAAAAAAACzA/r-hF3yPc87Y/s1600/Topologi-Mesh.jpg" style="border: 0px solid rgb(204, 204, 204); padding-top: 4px;" /></a></div>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: center;">
<b>Gambar 5 : Prinsip Kerja Topologi Mesh</b></div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
Topologi Mesh adalah topologi yang tidak memiliki aturan dalam koneksi. Karena tidak teratur maka kegagalan komunikasi menjadi sulit dideteksi, dan ada kemungkinan boros dalam pemakaian media transmisi. setiap perangkat Setiap prrangkat terhubung secara langsung ke perangkat lainnya yang ada di dalam jaringan. Akibatnya, dalam topologi mesh setiap perangkat dapat berkomunikasi langsung dengan perangkat yang dituju (dedicated links).</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kelebihan topologi mesh</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Dapat berkomunikasi langsung dengan perangkat tujuan.</li>
<li>Data dapat di kirim langsung ke computer tujuan tanpa harus melalui computer lainnya lebih cepat.</li>
<li>Satu link di gunakan khusus untuk berkomunikasi dengan komputer yang di tuju.</li>
<li>Memiliki sifat Robust, yaitu apabila terjadi gangguan pada koneksi komputer A dengan komputer B karena rusaknya kabel koneksi (links) antara A dan B, maka gangguan tersebut tidak akan mempengaruhi koneksi komputer A dengan komputer lainnya.</li>
<li>Mudah dalam proses identifikasi permasalahan pada saat terjadi kerusakan koneksi antar komputer.</li>
</ol>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><b style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">Kekurangan topologi mesh</b><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;"> :</span><br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><ol style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
<li>Setiap perangkat harus memiliki I/O port.</li>
<li>Butuh banyak kabel sehingga butuh banyak biaya.</li>
<li>Instalasi dan konfigurasi lebih sulit karena komputer yang satu dengan yang lain harus terkoneksi secara langsung.</li>
<li>Biaya yang besar untuk memelihara hubungan yang berlebih.</li>
</ol>
<div style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">
Itulah pembahasan tentang <a href="http://teknik-blog-tutorial.blogspot.com/" style="color: #357798; text-decoration: none;" target="_blank"><b>topologi jaringan komputer</b></a>, semoga bermanfaat untuk anda semua dan selamat menjalankan ibadah puasa Ramadhan 1433 H, wassalam.</div>
<br style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;" /><span style="background-color: white; color: #333333; font-family: Arial, Verdana; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px; text-align: justify;">sumber : http://fery-dedi.blogspot.com/2012/03/jenis-topologi-jaringan-serta.html</span>
</div>
Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/17395386213620165519noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-448742420531429597.post-88436528368206275372013-01-17T18:27:00.001-08:002013-01-17T18:27:20.497-08:00<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
<br />
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;">Jenis-jenis Jaringan Komputer dan
Pengertiannya</span></b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 16pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan komputer adalah sebuah sistem
atau rangkaian yang terdiri dari dua komputer atau lebih, dimana antara satu
komputer dengan komputer yang lainnya saling terhubung oleh sebuah sistem
komunikasi, sehingga memungkinkan setiap komputer yang tergabung dalam jaringan
tersebut dapat saling tukar-menukar data, program, dan sumber daya komputer
lainnya seperti media penyimpanan, printer, dan lain-lain.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Selain itu melalui jaringan komputer yang
menghubungkan komputer-komputer yang berada pada lokasi yang berjauhan, dapat
juga terjalin komunikasi, seperti komunikasi melalui surat elektronik atau
email, mengirim data atau upload dan mengambil data dari tempat lain yang
disebut dengan download. Berbagai kegiatan lainnya yang berhubungan dengan
komunikasi data, juga dapat dilakukan melalui jarangan komputer.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br />
<b>Jenis-jenis Jaringan Komputer dan Pengertiannya.<o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 13.5pt; text-align: justify; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pada kesempatan ini akan dipublikasikan
jenis-jenis jaringan komputer dan pengertiannya yang berdasarkan karaterianya
dapat dibedakan menjadi 4 bagian, yaitu diantaranya adalah:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">1.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Berdasarkan jangkauan
geografis dibedakan menjadi:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan LAN<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">merupakan
jaringan yang menghubungkan 2 komputer atau lebih dalam cakupan seperti
laboratorium, kantor, serta dalam 1 warnet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan MAN<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Merupakan
jaringan yang mencakup satu kota besar beserta daerah setempat. Contohnya
jaringan telepon lokal, sistem telepon seluler, serta jaringan relay beberapa
ISP internet.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan WAN<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Merupakan
jaringan dengan cakupan seluruh dunia. Contohnya jaringan PT. Telkom, PT.
Indosat, serta jaringan GSM Seluler seperti Satelindo, Telkomsel, dan masih
banyak lagi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">2.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Berdasarkan distribusi
sumber informasi/data dibedakan menjadi:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan terpusat<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan
ini terdiri dari komputer klient dan server yang mana komputer klient yang berfungsi
sebagai perantara untuk mengakses sumber informasi/data yang berasal dari satu
komputer server.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;"><br /></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan terdistribusi<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Merupakan
perpaduan beberapa jaringan terpusat sehingga terdapat beberapa komputer server
yang saling berhubungan dengan klient membentuk sistem jaringan tertentu.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">3.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Berdasarkan media
transmisi data dibedakan menjadi:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan Berkabel (Wired Network)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pada
jaringan ini, untuk menghubungkan satu komputer dengan komputer lain diperlukan
penghubung berupa kabel jaringan. Kabel jaringan berfungsi dalam mengirim
informasi dalam bentuk sinyal listrik antar komputer jaringan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan Nirkabel (Wireless Network)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Merupakan
jaringan dengan medium berupa gelombang elektromagnetik. Pada jaringan ini
tidak diperlukan kabel untuk menghubungkan antar komputer karena menggunakan
gelombang elektromagnetik yang akan mengirimkan sinyal informasi antar komputer
jaringan.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<!--[if !supportLists]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">4.<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 7pt; font-weight: normal; line-height: normal;">
</span></span></b><!--[endif]--><b><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Berdasarkan peranan
Komputer dalam Proses Data:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan Client-Server<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pada
jaringan ini terdapat 1 atau beberapa komputer server dan komputer client.
Komputer yang akan menjadi komputer server maupun menjadi komputer client dan
diubah-ubah melalui software jaringan pada protokolnya. Komputer client sebagai
perantara untuk dapat mengakses data pada komputer server sedangkan komputer
server menyediakan informasi yang diperlukan oleh komputer client.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b><u><span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Jaringan Peer-to-peer</span></u></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Pada
jaringan ini tidak ada komputer client maupun komputer server karena semua
komputer dapat melakukan pengiriman maupun penerimaan informasi sehingga semua
komputer berfungsi sebagai client sekaligus sebagai server.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Comic Sans MS'; font-size: 12pt;">Demikianlah
artikel tentang macam-macam jaringan komputer yang sudah dipublikasikan berikut
dengan arti dari masing-masing jenis jaringan komputer tersebut. Semoga
informasi ini kiranya bermanfaat.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://berita-terhangat.blogspot.com/2012/12/jenis-jenis-jaringan-komputer-dan.html" style="background-color: white; line-height: 13.5pt; text-indent: 36pt;">http://berita-terhangat.blogspot.com/2012/12/jenis-jenis-jaringan-komputer-dan.html</a></div>
</div>
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